(2.) National. God adopted Israel (Ex. 4:22; Deut. 7:6;
Hos. 11:1; Rom. 9:4).
(3.) Spiritual. An act of God's grace by which he
brings men into the number of his redeemed family, and
makes them partakers of all the blessings he has provided
for them. Adoption represents the new relations into which
the believer is introduced by justification, and the
privileges connected therewith, viz., an interest in
God's peculiar love (John 17:23; Rom. 5:5-8), a
spiritual nature (2 Pet. 1:4; John 1:13), the possession of
a spirit becoming children of God (1 Pet. 1:14; 2 John 4;
Rom. 8:15-21; Gal. 5:1; Heb. 2:15), present protection,
consolation, supplies (Luke 12:27-32; John 14:18; 1 Cor.
3:21-23; 2 Cor. 1:4), fatherly chastisements (Heb.
12:5-11), and a future glorious inheritance (Rom. 8:17,23;
James 2:5; Phil. 3:21).
The Cave of Adullam has been discovered about 2 miles south
of the scene of David's triumph, and about 13 miles
west from Bethlehem. At this place is a hill some 500 feet
high pierced with numerous caverns, in one of which David
gathered together "every one that was in distress, and
every one that was in debt, and every one that was
discontented" (1 Sam. 22:2). Some of these caverns are
large enough to hold 200 or 300 men. According to tradition
this cave was at Wady Khureitun, between Bethlehem and the
Dead Sea, but this view cannot be well maintained.
The Mosaic law (Num. 5:11-31) prescribed that the suspected
wife should be tried by the ordeal of the "water of
jealousy." There is, however, no recorded instance of
the application of this law. In subsequent times the Rabbis
made various regulations with the view of discovering the
guilty party, and of bringing about a divorce. It has been
inferred from John 8:1-11 that this sin became very common
during the age preceding the destruction of Jerusalem.
Idolatry, covetousness, and apostasy are spoken of as
adultery spiritually (Jer. 3:6, 8, 9; Ezek. 16:32; Hos.
1:2:3; Rev. 2:22). An apostate church is an adulteress
(Isa. 1:21; Ezek. 23:4, 7, 37), and the Jews are styled
"an adulterous generation" (Matt. 12:39). (Comp.
Rev. 12.)
(2.) Another king of the Amalekites whom Saul spared
unlawfully, but whom Samuel on his arrival in the camp of
Saul ordered, in retributive justice (Judg. 1), to be
brought out and cut in pieces (1 Sam. 15:8-33. Comp. Ex.
17:11; Num. 14:45).
The verb from which the noun "agony" is derived
is used to denote an earnest endeavour or striving, as
"Strive [agonize] to enter" (Luke 13:24);
"Then would my servants fight" [agonize] (John
18:36). Comp. 1 Cor. 9:25; Col. 1:29; 4:12; 1 Tim. 6:12; 2
Tim. 4:7, where the words "striveth,"
"labour," "conflict,"
"fight," are the renderings of the same Greek
verb.
The year in Palestine was divided into six agricultural
periods:-
I. SOWING TIME. Tisri, latter half (beginning about the
autumnal equinox.) Marchesvan. Kisleu, former half. Early
rain due = first showers of autumn.
II. UNRIPE TIME. Kisleu, latter half. Tebet. Sebat, former
half.
III. COLD SEASON. Sebat, latter half. Adar. [Veadar.]
Nisan, former half. Latter rain due (Deut. 11:14; Jer.
5:24; Hos. 6:3; Zech. 10:1; James 5:7; Job 29:23).
IV. HARVEST TIME. Nisan, latter half. (Beginning about
vernal equinox. Barley green. Passover.) Ijar. Sivan,
former half., Wheat ripe. Pentecost.
V. SUMMER (total absence of rain) Sivan, latter half.
Tammuz. Ab, former half.
VI. SULTRY SEASON Ab, latter half. Elul. Tisri, former
half., Ingathering of fruits.
The six months from the middle of Tisri to the middle of
Nisan were occupied with the work of cultivation, and the
rest of the year mainly with the gathering in of the
fruits. The extensive and easily-arranged system of
irrigation from the rills and streams from the mountains
made the soil in every part of Palestine richly productive
(Ps. 1:3; 65:10; Prov. 21:1; Isa. 30:25; 32:2, 20; Hos.
12:11), and the appliances of careful cultivation and of
manure increased its fertility to such an extent that in
the days of Solomon, when there was an abundant population,
"20,000 measures of wheat year by year" were sent
to Hiram in exchange for timber (1 Kings 5:11), and in
large quantities also wheat was sent to the Tyrians for the
merchandise in which they traded (Ezek. 27:17). The wheat
sometimes produced an hundredfold (Gen. 26:12; Matt.
13:23). Figs and pomegranates were very plentiful (Num.
13:23), and the vine and the olive grew luxuriantly and
produced abundant fruit (Deut. 33:24).
Lest the productiveness of the soil should be exhausted, it
was enjoined that the whole land should rest every seventh
year, when all agricultural labour would entirely cease
(Lev. 25:1-7; Deut. 15:1-10).
It was forbidden to sow a field with divers seeds (Deut.
22:9). A passer-by was at liberty to eat any quantity of
corn or grapes, but he was not permitted to carry away any
(Deut. 23:24, 25; Matt. 12:1). The poor were permitted to
claim the corners of the fields and the gleanings. A
forgotten sheaf in the field was to be left also for the
poor. (See Lev. 19:9, 10; Deut. 24:19.)
Agricultural implements and operations.
The sculptured monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and
Assyria throw much light on this subject, and on the
general operations of agriculture. Ploughs of a simple
construction were known in the time of Moses (Deut. 22:10;
comp. Job 1:14). They were very light, and required great
attention to keep them in the ground (Luke 9:62). They were
drawn by oxen (Job 1:14), cows (1 Sam. 6:7), and asses
(Isa. 30:24); but an ox and an ass must not be yoked
together in the same plough (Deut. 22:10). Men sometimes
followed the plough with a hoe to break the clods (Isa.
28:24). The oxen were urged on by a "goad," or
long staff pointed at the end, so that if occasion arose it
could be used as a spear also (Judg. 3:31; 1 Sam. 13:21).
When the soil was prepared, the seed was sown broadcast
over the field (Matt. 13:3-8). The "harrow"
mentioned in Job 39:10 was not used to cover the seeds, but
to break the clods, being little more than a thick block of
wood. In highly irrigated spots the seed was trampled in by
cattle (Isa. 32:20); but doubtless there was some kind of
harrow also for covering in the seed scattered in the
furrows of the field.
The reaping of the corn was performed either by pulling it
up by the roots, or cutting it with a species of sickle,
according to circumstances. The corn when cut was generally
put up in sheaves (Gen. 37:7; Lev. 23:10-15; Ruth 2:7, 15;
Job 24:10; Jer. 9:22; Micah 4:12), which were afterwards
gathered to the threshing-floor or stored in barns (Matt.
6:26).
The process of threshing was performed generally by
spreading the sheaves on the threshing-floor and causing
oxen and cattle to tread repeatedly over them (Deut. 25:4;
Isa. 28:28). On occasions flails or sticks were used for
this purpose (Ruth 2:17; Isa. 28:27). There was also a
"threshing instrument" (Isa. 41:15; Amos 1:3)
which was drawn over the corn. It was called by the Hebrews
a moreg, a threshing roller or sledge (2 Sam. 24:22; 1 Chr.
21:23; Isa. 3:15). It was somewhat like the Roman tribulum,
or threshing instrument.
When the grain was threshed, it was winnowed by being
thrown up against the wind (Jer. 4:11), and afterwards
tossed with wooden scoops (Isa. 30:24). The shovel and the
fan for winnowing are mentioned in Ps. 35:5, Job 21:18,
Isa. 17:13. The refuse of straw and chaff was burned (Isa.
5:24). Freed from impurities, the grain was then laid up in
granaries till used (Deut. 28:8; Prov. 3:10; Matt. 6:26;
13:30; Luke 12:18).
(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 4:6, probably the Cambyses
of profane history, the son and successor of Cyrus (B.C.
529).
(3.) The son of Darius Hystaspes, the king named in the
Book of Esther. He ruled over the kingdoms of Persia,
Media, and Babylonia, "from India to Ethiopia."
This was in all probability the Xerxes of profane history,
who succeeded his father Darius (B.C. 485). In the LXX.
version of the Book of Esther the name Artaxerxes occurs
for Ahasuerus. He reigned for twenty-one years (B.C.
486-465). He invaded Greece with an army, it is said, of
more than 2,000,000 soldiers, only 5,000 of whom returned
with him. Leonidas, with his famous 300, arrested his
progress at the Pass of Thermopylae, and then he was
defeated disastrously by Themistocles at Salamis. It was
after his return from this invasion that Esther was chosen
as his queen.
(2.) The son and successor of Jotham, king of Judah (2
Kings 16; Isa. 7-9; 2 Chr. 28). He gave himself up to a
life of wickedness and idolatry. Notwithstanding the
remonstrances and warnings of Isaiah, Hosea, and Micah, he
appealed for help against Rezin, king of Damascus, and
Pekah, king of Israel, who threatened Jerusalem, to
Tiglath-pileser, the king of Assyria, to the great injury
of his kingdom and his own humilating subjection to the
Assyrians (2 Kings 16:7, 9; 15:29). He also introduced
among his people many heathen and idolatrous customs (Isa.
8:19; 38:8; 2 Kings 23:12). He died at the age of
thirty-five years, after reigning sixteen years (B.C.
740-724), and was succeeded by his son Hezekiah. Because of
his wickedness he was "not brought into the sepulchre
of the kings."
(2.) The son of Joram, or Jehoram, and sixth king of Judah.
Called Jehoahaz (2 Chr. 21:17; 25:23), and Azariah (2 Chr.
22:6). Guided by his idolatrous mother Athaliah, his reign
was disastrous (2 Kings 8:24-29; 9:29). He joined his uncle
Jehoram, king of Israel, in an expedition against Hazael,
king of Damascus; but was wounded at the pass of Gur when
attempting to escape, and had strength only to reach
Megiddo, where he died (2 Kings 9:22-28). He reigned only
one year.
(2.) Name different in Hebrew, meaning brother of Judah.
Chief of the tribe of Asher; one of those appointed by
Moses to superintend the division of Canaan among the tribe
(Num. 34:27).
(2.) One of the five sons of Jerahmeel, who was
great-grandson of Judah (1 Chr. 2:25).
(3.) Son of Ahitub (1 Sam. 14:3, 18), Ichabod's
brother; the same probably as Ahimelech, who was high
priest at Nob in the reign of Saul (1 Sam. 22:11). Some,
however, suppose that Ahimelech was the brother of Ahijah,
and that they both officiated as high priests, Ahijah at
Gibeah or Kirjath-jearim, and Ahimelech at Nob.
(4.) A Pelonite, one of David's heroes (1 Chr. 11:36);
called also Eliam (2 Sam. 23:34).
(5.) A Levite having charge of the sacred treasury in the
temple (1 Chr. 26:20).
(6.) One of Solomon's secretaries (1 Kings 4:3).
(7.) A prophet of Shiloh (1 Kings 11:29; 14:2), called the
"Shilonite," in the days of Rehoboam. We have on
record two of his remarkable prophecies, 1 Kings 11:31-39,
announcing the rending of the ten tribes from Solomon; and
1 Kings 14:6-16, delivered to Jeroboam's wife,
foretelling the death of Abijah the king's son, the
destruction of Jeroboam's house, and the captivity of
Israel "beyond the river." Jeroboam bears
testimony to the high esteem in which he was held as a
prophet of God (1 Kings 14:2,3).
(2.) The son and successor of Zadok in the office of high
priest (1 Chr. 6:8, 53). On the occasion of the revolt of
Absalom he remained faithful to David, and was of service
to him in conveying to him tidings of the proceedings of
Absalom in Jerusalem (2 Sam. 15:24-37; 17:15-21). He was
swift of foot, and was the first to carry to David tidings
of the defeat of Absalom, although he refrained, from
delicacy of feeling, from telling him of his death (2 Sam.
18:19-33).
(2.) One of the sons of Jehiel the Gibeonite (1 Chr. 8:31;
9:37).
(3.) One of the sons of Abinadab the Levite. While Uzzah
went by the side of the ark, he walked before it guiding
the oxen which drew the cart on which it was carried, after
having brought it from his father's house in Gibeah (1
Chr. 13:7; 2 Sam. 6:3, 4).
The expression "to speak into the air" (1 Cor.
14:9) is a proverb denoting to speak in vain, as to
"beat the air" (1 Cor. 9:26) denotes to labour in
vain.
(2.) A man whose father, Simon the Cyrenian, bore the cross
of Christ (Mark 15:21).
(3.) A Jew of Ephesus who took a prominent part in the
uproar raised there by the preaching of Paul (Acts 19:33).
The Jews put him forward to plead their cause before the
mob. It was probably intended that he should show that he
and the other Jews had no sympathy with Paul any more than
the Ephesians had. It is possible that this man was the
same as the following.
(4.) A coppersmith who, with Hymenaeus and others,
promulgated certain heresies regarding the resurrection (1
Tim. 1:19; 2 Tim. 4:14), and made shipwreck of faith and of
a good conscience. Paul excommunicated him (1 Tim. 1:20;
comp. 1 Cor. 5:5).
(1.) Those who were strangers generally, and who owned no
landed property.
(2.) Strangers dwelling in another country without being
naturalized (Lev. 22:10; Ps. 39:12).
Both of these classes were to enjoy, under certain
conditions, the same rights as other citizens (Lev. 19:33,
34; Deut. 10:19). They might be naturalized and permitted
to enter into the congregation of the Lord by submitting to
circumcision and abandoning idolatry (Deut. 23:3-8).
This term is used (Eph. 2:12) to denote persons who have no
interest in Christ.
Every parable is an allegory. Nathan (2 Sam. 12:1-4)
addresses David in an allegorical narrative. In the
eightieth Psalm there is a beautiful allegory: "Thou
broughtest a vine out of Egypt," etc. In Eccl. 12:2-6,
there is a striking allegorical description of old age.
Abraham formed an alliance with some of the Canaanitish
princes (Gen. 14:13), also with Abimelech (21:22-32).
Joshua and the elders of Israel entered into an alliance
with the Gibeonites (Josh. 9:3-27). When the Israelites
entered Palestine they were forbidden to enter into
alliances with the inhabitants of the country (Lev. 18:3,
4; 20:22, 23).
Solomon formed a league with Hiram (1 Kings 5:12). This
"brotherly covenant" is referred to 250 years
afterwards (Amos 1:9). He also appears to have entered into
an alliance with Pharaoh (1 Kings 10:28, 29).
In the subsequent history of the kingdoms of Judah and
Israel various alliances were formed between them and also
with neighbouring nations at different times.
From patriarchal times a covenant of alliance was sealed by
the blood of some sacrificial victim. The animal sacrificed
was cut in two (except birds), and between these two parts
the persons contracting the alliance passed (Gen. 15:10).
There are frequent allusions to this practice (Jer. 34:18).
Such alliances were called "covenants of salt"
(Num. 18:19; 2 Chr. 13:5), salt being the symbol of
perpetuity. A pillar was set up as a memorial of the
alliance between Laban and Jacob (Gen. 31:52). The Jews
throughout their whole history attached great importance to
fidelity to their engagements. Divine wrath fell upon the
violators of them (Josh. 9:18; 2 Sam. 21:1, 2; Ezek.
17:16).
In the time of our Lord begging was common (Mark 10:46;
Acts 3:2). The Pharisees were very ostentatious in their
almsgivings (Matt. 6:2). The spirit by which the Christian
ought to be actuated in this duty is set forth in 1 John
3:17. A regard to the state of the poor and needy is
enjoined as a Christian duty (Luke 3:11; 6:30; Matt. 6:1;
Acts 9:36; 10:2, 4), a duty which was not neglected by the
early Christians (Luke 14:13; Acts 20:35; Gal. 2:10; Rom.
15:25-27; 1 Cor. 16:1-4). They cared not only for the poor
among themselves, but contributed also to the necessities
of those at a distance (Acts 11:29; 24:17; 2 Cor. 9:12).
Our Lord and his attendants showed an example also in this
(John 13:29).
In modern times the "poor-laws" have introduced
an element which modifies considerably the form in which we
may discharge this Christian duty.
Paul found among the many altars erected in Athens one
bearing the inscription, "To the unknown God"
(Acts 17:23), or rather "to an [i.e., some] unknown
God." The reason for this inscription cannot now be
accurately determined. It afforded the apostle the occasion
of proclaiming the gospel to the "men of Athens."
The first altar we read of is that erected by Noah (Gen.
8:20). Altars were erected by Abraham (Gen. 12:7; 13:4;
22:9), by Isaac (Gen. 26:25), by Jacob (33:20; 35:1, 3),
and by Moses (Ex. 17:15, "Jehovah-nissi").
In the tabernacle, and afterwards in the temple, two altars
were erected.
(1.) The altar of burnt offering (Ex. 30:28), called also
the "brasen altar" (Ex. 39:39) and "the
table of the Lord" (Mal. 1:7).
This altar, as erected in the tabernacle, is described in
Ex. 27:1-8. It was a hollow square, 5 cubits in length and
in breadth, and 3 cubits in height. It was made of shittim
wood, and was overlaid with plates of brass. Its corners
were ornamented with "horns" (Ex. 29:12; Lev.
4:18).
In Ex. 27:3 the various utensils appertaining to the altar
are enumerated. They were made of brass. (Comp. 1 Sam.
2:13, 14; Lev. 16:12; Num. 16:6, 7.)
In Solomon's temple the altar was of larger dimensions
(2 Chr. 4:1. Comp. 1 Kings 8:22, 64; 9:25), and was made
wholly of brass, covering a structure of stone or earth.
This altar was renewed by Asa (2 Chr. 15:8). It was removed
by Ahaz (2 Kings 16:14), and "cleansed" by
Hezekiah, in the latter part of whose reign it was rebuilt.
It was finally broken up and carried away by the
Babylonians (Jer. 52:17).
After the return from captivity it was re-erected (Ezra
3:3, 6) on the same place where it had formerly stood.
(Comp. 1 Macc. 4:47.) When Antiochus Epiphanes pillaged
Jerusalem the altar of burnt offering was taken away.
Again the altar was erected by Herod, and remained in its
place till the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans (70
A.D.).
The fire on the altar was not permitted to go out (Lev.
6:9).
In the Mosque of Omar, immediately underneath the great
dome, which occupies the site of the old temple, there is a
rough projection of the natural rock, of about 60 feet in
its extreme length, and 50 in its greatest breadth, and in
its highest part about 4 feet above the general pavement.
This rock seems to have been left intact when Solomon's
temple was built. It was in all probability the site of the
altar of burnt offering. Underneath this rock is a cave,
which may probably have been the granary of Araunah's
threshing-floor (1 Chr. 21:22).
(2.) The altar of incense (Ex. 30:1-10), called also
"the golden altar" (39:38; Num. 4:11), stood in
the holy place "before the vail that is by the ark of
the testimony." On this altar sweet spices were
continually burned with fire taken from the brazen altar.
The morning and the evening services were commenced by the
high priest offering incense on this altar. The burning of
the incense was a type of prayer (Ps. 141:2; Rev. 5:8; 8:3,
4).
This altar was a small movable table, made of acacia wood
overlaid with gold (Ex. 37:25, 26). It was 1 cubit in
length and breadth, and 2 cubits in height.
In Solomon's temple the altar was similar in size, but
was made of cedar-wood (1 Kings 6:20; 7:48) overlaid with
gold. In Ezek. 41:22 it is called "the altar of
wood." (Comp. Ex. 30:1-6.)
In the temple built after the Exile the altar was restored.
Antiochus Epiphanes took it away, but it was afterwards
restored by Judas Maccabaeus (1 Macc. 1:23; 4:49). Among
the trophies carried away by Titus on the destruction of
Jerusalem the altar of incense is not found, nor is any
mention made of it in Heb. 9. It was at this altar
Zacharias ministered when an angel appeared to him (Luke
1:11). It is the only altar which appears in the heavenly
temple (Isa. 6:6; Rev. 8:3,4).
(2.) A Levite, son of Hebron, of the lineage of Moses (1
Chr. 23:19; 24:23).
(3.) A "chief priest" who took an active part in
the reformation under Jehoshaphat (2 Chr. 19:11); probably
the same as mentioned in 1 Chr. 6:9.
(4.) 1 Chr. 6:11; Ezra 7:3. (5.) One of the high priests in
the time of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:15). (6.) Zeph. 1:1. (7.)
Neh. 11:4. (8.) Neh. 10:3. (9.) Ezra 10:42.
(2.) The leader of a body of men who joined David in the
"stronghold," probably of Adullam (1 Chr. 12:18).
(3.) One of the priests appointed to precede the ark with
blowing of trumpets on its removal from the house of
Obed-edom (1 Chr. 15:24).
(4.) The father of a Levite, one of the two Kohathites who
took a prominent part at the instance of Hezekiah in the
cleansing of the temple (2 Chr. 29:12).
(2.) The son and successor of Joash, and eighth king of the
separate kingdom of Judah (2 Kings 14:1-4). He began his
reign by punishing the murderers of his father (5-7; 2 Chr.
25:3-5). He was the first to employ a mercenary army of
100,000 Israelite soldiers, which he did in his attempt to
bring the Edomites again under the yoke of Judah (2 Chr.
25:5, 6). He was commanded by a prophet of the Lord to send
back the mercenaries, which he did (2 Chr. 25:7-10, 13),
much to their annoyance. His obedience to this command was
followed by a decisive victory over the Edomites (2 Chr.
25:14-16). Amaziah began to worship some of the idols he
took from the Edomites, and this was his ruin, for he was
vanquished by Joash, king of Israel, whom he challenged to
battle. The disaster he thus brought upon Judah by his
infatuation in proclaiming war against Israel probably
occasioned the conspiracy by which he lost his life (2
Kings 14:8-14, 19). He was slain at Lachish, whither he had
fled, and his body was brought upon horses to Jerusalem,
where it was buried in the royal sepulchre (2 Kings 14:19,
20; 2 Chr. 25:27, 28).
(3.) A priest of the golden calves at Bethel (Amos
7:10-17).
(4.) The father of Joshah, one of the Simeonite chiefs in
the time of Hezekiah (1 Chr. 4:34).
The Hebrews on various occasions and for various purposes
had recourse to the services of ambassadors, e.g., to
contract alliances (Josh. 9:4), to solicit favours (Num.
20:14), to remonstrate when wrong was done (Judg. 11:12),
to condole with a young king on the death of his father (2
Sam. 10:2), and to congratulate a king on his accession to
the throne (1 Kings 5:1).
To do injury to an ambassador was to insult the king who
sent him (2 Sam. 10:5).