It is found singly and sometimes doubly at the end of
prayers (Ps. 41:13; 72:19; 89:52), to confirm the words and
invoke the fulfilment of them. It is used in token of being
bound by an oath (Num. 5:22; Deut. 27:15-26; Neh. 5:13;
8:6; 1 Chr. 16:36). In the primitive churches it was common
for the general audience to say "Amen" at the
close of the prayer (1 Cor. 14:16).
The promises of God are Amen; i.e., they are all true and
sure (2 Cor. 1:20).
The prophets predicted fearful judgments against the
Ammonites because of their hostility to Israel (Zeph. 2:8;
Jer. 49:1-6; Ezek. 25:1-5, 10; Amos 1:13-15).
The national idol worshipped by this people was Molech or
Milcom, at whose altar they offered human sacrifices (1
Kings 11:5, 7). The high places built for this idol by
Solomon, at the instigation of his Ammonitish wives, were
not destroyed till the time of Josiah (2 Kings 23:13).
(2.) The eldest son of David, by Ahinoam of Jezreel (1 Chr.
3:1; 2 Sam. 3:2). Absalom caused him to be put to death for
his great crime in the matter of Tamar (2 Sam. 13:28, 29).
(2.) The son of Manasseh, and fourteenth king of Judah. He
restored idolatry, and set up the images which his father
had cast down. Zephaniah (1:4; 3:4, 11) refers to the moral
depravity prevailing in this king's reign.
He was assassinated (2 Kings 21:18-26: 2 Chr. 33:20-25) by
his own servants, who conspired against him.
(3.) An Egyptian god, usually depicted with a human body
and the head of a ram, referred to in Jer. 46:25, where the
word "multitudes" in the Authorized Version is
more appropriately rendered "Amon" in the Revised
Version. In Nah. 3:8 the expression "populous No"
of the Authorized version is rendered in the Revised
Version "No-amon." Amon is identified with Ra,
the sun-god of Heliopolis.
(1.) The nations around are summoned to judgment because of
their sins (1:1-2:3). He quotes Joel 3:16.
(2.) The spiritual condition of Judah, and especially of
Israel, is described (2:4-6:14).
(3.) In 7:1-9:10 are recorded five prophetic visions. (a)
The first two (7:1-6) refer to judgments against the guilty
people. (b) The next two (7:7-9; 8:1-3) point out the
ripeness of the people for the threatened judgements.
7:10-17 consists of a conversation between the prophet and
the priest of Bethel. (c) The fifth describes the overthrow
and ruin of Israel (9:1-10); to which is added the promise
of the restoration of the kingdom and its final glory in
the Messiah's kingdom.
The style is peculiar in the number of the allusions made
to natural objects and to agricultural occupations. Other
allusions show also that Amos was a student of the law as
well as a "child of nature." These phrases are
peculiar to him: "Cleanness of teeth" [i.e., want
of bread] (4:6); "The excellency of Jacob" (6:8;
8:7); "The high places of Isaac" (7:9); "The
house of Isaac" (7:16); "He that createth the
wind" (4:13). Quoted, Acts 7:42.
(2.) A Christian at Damascus (Acts 9:10). He became
Paul's instructor; but when or by what means he himself
became a Christian we have no information. He was "a
devout man according to the law, having a good report of
all the Jews which dwelt" at Damascus (22:12).
(3.) The high priest before whom Paul was brought in the
procuratorship of Felix (Acts 23:2, 5, 24). He was so
enraged at Paul's noble declaration, "I have lived
in all good conscience before God until this day,"
that he commanded one of his attendants to smite him on the
mouth. Smarting under this unprovoked insult, Paul quickly
replied, "God shall smite thee, thou whited
wall." Being reminded that Ananias was the high
priest, to whose office all respect was to be paid, he
answered, "I wist not, brethren, that he was the high
priest" (Acts 23:5). This expression has occasioned
some difficulty, as it is scarcely probable that Paul
should have been ignorant of so public a fact. The
expression may mean (a) that Paul had at the moment
overlooked the honour due to the high priest; or (b), as
others think, that Paul spoke ironically, as if he had
said, "The high priest breaking the law! God's
high priest a tyrant and a lawbreaker! I see a man in white
robes, and have heard his voice, but surely it cannot, it
ought not to be, the voice of the high priest." (See
Dr. Lindsay on Acts, in loco.) (c) Others think that
from defect of sight Paul could not observe that the
speaker was the high priest. In all this, however, it may
be explained, Paul, with all his excellency, comes short of
the example of his divine Master, who, when he was reviled,
reviled not again.
In the New Testament this word always implies execration.
In some cases an individual denounces an anathema on
himself unless certain conditions are fulfilled (Acts
23:12, 14, 21). "To call Jesus accursed"
[anathema] (1 Cor. 12:3) is to pronounce him execrated or
accursed. If any one preached another gospel, the apostle
says, "let him be accursed" (Gal. 1:8, 9); i.e.,
let his conduct in so doing be accounted accursed.
In Rom. 9:3, the expression "accursed" (anathema)
from Christ, i.e., excluded from fellowship or alliance
with Christ, has occasioned much difficulty. The apostle
here does not speak of his wish as a possible thing. It is
simply a vehement expression of feeling, showing how strong
was his desire for the salvation of his people.
The anathema in 1 Cor. 16:22 denotes simply that they who
love not the Lord are rightly objects of loathing and
execration to all holy beings; they are guilty of a crime
that merits the severest condemnation; they are exposed to
the just sentence of "everlasting destruction from the
presence of the Lord."
It is also applied to such impersonal agents as the
pestilence (2 Sam. 24:16, 17; 2 Kings 19:35), the wind (Ps.
104:4).
But its distinctive application is to certain heavenly
intelligences whom God employs in carrying on his
government of the world. The name does not denote their
nature but their office as messengers. The appearances to
Abraham at Mamre (Gen. 18:2, 22. Comp. 19:1), to Jacob at
Peniel (Gen. 32:24, 30), to Joshua at Gilgal (Josh. 5:13,
15), of the Angel of the Lord, were doubtless
manifestations of the Divine presence, "foreshadowings
of the incarnation," revelations before the
"fulness of the time" of the Son of God.
(1.) The existence and orders of angelic beings can only be
discovered from the Scriptures. Although the Bible does not
treat of this subject specially, yet there are numerous
incidental details that furnish us with ample information.
Their personal existence is plainly implied in such
passages as Gen. 16:7, 10, 11; Judg. 13:1-21; Matt. 28:2-5;
Heb. 1:4, etc.
These superior beings are very numerous. "Thousand
thousands," etc. (Dan. 7:10; Matt. 26:53; Luke 2:13;
Heb. 12:22, 23). They are also spoken of as of different
ranks in dignity and power (Zech. 1:9, 11; Dan. 10:13;
12:1; 1 Thess. 4:16; Jude 1:9; Eph. 1:21; Col. 1:16).
(2.) As to their nature, they are spirits (Heb. 1:14), like
the soul of man, but not incorporeal. Such expressions as
"like the angels" (Luke 20:36), and the fact that
whenever angels appeared to man it was always in a human
form (Gen. 18:2; 19:1, 10; Luke 24:4; Acts 1:10), and the
titles that are applied to them ("sons of God,"
Job 1:6; 38:7; Dan. 3:25; comp. 28) and to men (Luke 3:38),
seem all to indicate some resemblance between them and the
human race. Imperfection is ascribed to them as creatures
(Job 4:18; Matt. 24:36; 1 Pet. 1:12). As finite creatures
they may fall under temptation; and accordingly we read of
"fallen angels." Of the cause and manner of their
"fall" we are wholly ignorant. We know only that
"they left their first estate" (Matt. 25:41; Rev.
12:7,9), and that they are "reserved unto
judgement" (2 Pet. 2:4). When the manna is called
"angels' food," this is merely to denote its
excellence (Ps. 78:25). Angels never die (Luke 20:36). They
are possessed of superhuman intelligence and power (Mark
13:32; 2 Thess. 1:7; Ps. 103:20). They are called
"holy" (Luke 9:26), "elect" (1 Tim.
5:21). The redeemed in glory are "like unto the
angels" (Luke 20:36). They are not to be worshipped
(Col. 2:18; Rev. 19:10).
(3.) Their functions are manifold. (a) In the widest sense
they are agents of God's providence (Ex. 12:23; Ps.
104:4; Heb. 11:28; 1 Cor. 10:10; 2 Sam. 24:16; 1 Chr.
21:16; 2 Kings 19:35; Acts 12:23). (b) They are specially
God's agents in carrying on his great work of
redemption. There is no notice of angelic appearances to
man till after the call of Abraham. From that time onward
there are frequent references to their ministry on earth
(Gen. 18; 19; 24:7, 40; 28:12; 32:1). They appear to rebuke
idolatry (Judg. 2:1-4), to call Gideon (Judg. 6:11, 12),
and to consecrate Samson (13:3). In the days of the
prophets, from Samuel downward, the angels appear only in
their behalf (1 Kings 19:5; 2 Kings 6:17; Zech. 1-6; Dan.
4:13, 23; 10:10, 13, 20, 21).
The Incarnation introduces a new era in the ministrations
of angels. They come with their Lord to earth to do him
service while here. They predict his advent (Matt. 1:20;
Luke 1:26-38), minister to him after his temptation and
agony (Matt. 4:11; Luke 22:43), and declare his
resurrection and ascension (Matt. 28:2-8; John 20:12, 13;
Acts 1:10, 11). They are now ministering spirits to the
people of God (Heb. 1:14; Ps. 34:7; 91:11; Matt. 18:10;
Acts 5:19; 8:26; 10:3; 12:7; 27:23). They rejoice over a
penitent sinner (Luke 15:10). They bear the souls of the
redeemed to paradise (Luke 16:22); and they will be the
ministers of judgement hereafter on the great day (Matt.
13:39, 41, 49; 16:27; 24:31). The passages (Ps. 34:7, Matt.
18:10) usually referred to in support of the idea that
every individual has a particular guardian angel have no
such meaning. They merely indicate that God employs the
ministry of angels to deliver his people from affliction
and danger, and that the angels do not think it below their
dignity to minister even to children and to the least among
Christ's disciples.
The "angel of his presence" (Isa. 63:9. Comp. Ex.
23:20, 21; 32:34; 33:2; Num. 20:16) is probably rightly
interpreted of the Messiah as the guide of his people.
Others have supposed the expression to refer to Gabriel
(Luke 1:19).
(2.) Anointing was also an act of hospitality (Luke 7:38,
46). It was the custom of the Jews in like manner to anoint
themselves with oil, as a means of refreshing or
invigorating their bodies (Deut. 28:40; Ruth 3:3; 2 Sam.
14:2; Ps. 104:15, etc.). This custom is continued among the
Arabians to the present day.
(3.) Oil was used also for medicinal purposes. It was
applied to the sick, and also to wounds (Ps. 109:18; Isa.
1:6; Mark 6:13; James 5:14).
(4.) The bodies of the dead were sometimes anointed (Mark
14:8; Luke 23:56).
(5.) The promised Deliverer is twice called the
"Anointed" or Messiah (Ps. 2:2; Dan. 9:25, 26),
because he was anointed with the Holy Ghost (Isa. 61:1),
figuratively styled the "oil of gladness" (Ps.
45:7; Heb. 1:9). Jesus of Nazareth is this anointed One
(John 1:41; Acts 9:22; 17:2, 3; 18:5, 28), the Messiah of
the Old Testament.
(2.) In the extreme north of Pisidia; was visited by Paul
and Barnabas on the first missionary journey (Acts 13:14).
Here they found a synagogue and many proselytes. They met
with great success in preaching the gospel, but the Jews
stirred up a violent opposition against them, and they were
obliged to leave the place. On his return, Paul again
visited Antioch for the purpose of confirming the disciples
(Acts 14:21). It has been identified with the modern
Yalobatch, lying to the east of Ephesus.
(2.) Antiochus IV., surnamed "Epiphanes" i.e.,
the Illustrious, succeeded his brother Seleucus (B.C. 175).
His career and character are prophetically described by
Daniel (11:21-32). He was a "vile person." In a
spirit of revenge he organized an expedition against
Jerusalem, which he destroyed, putting vast multitudes of
its inhabitants to death in the most cruel manner. From
this time the Jews began the great war of independence
under their heroic Maccabean leaders with marked success,
defeating the armies of Antiochus that were sent against
them. Enraged at this, Antiochus marched against them in
person, threatening utterly to exterminate the nation; but
on the way he was suddenly arrested by the hand of death
(B.C. 164).
(2.) A city of the tribe of Issachar, near to Jezreel (1
Sam. 4:1; 29:1; comp. 28:4).
(3.) A town on the road from Damascus to Palestine, in the
level plain east of Jordan, near which Benhadad was
defeated by the Israelites (1 Kings 20:26, 30; 2 Kings
13:17). It has been identified with the modern Fik, 6 miles
east of the Sea of Galilee, opposite Tiberias.
(1.) They are not once quoted by the New Testament writers,
who frequently quote from the LXX. Our Lord and his
apostles confirmed by their authority the ordinary Jewish
canon, which was the same in all respects as we now have
it.
(2.) These books were written not in Hebrew but in Greek,
and during the "period of silence," from the time
of Malachi, after which oracles and direct revelations from
God ceased till the Christian era.
(3.) The contents of the books themselves show that they
were no part of Scripture. The Old Testament Apocrypha
consists of fourteen books, the chief of which are the
Books of the Maccabees (q.v.), the Books of Esdras, the
Book of Wisdom, the Book of Baruch, the Book of Esther,
Ecclesiasticus, Tobit, Judith, etc.
The New Testament Apocrypha consists of a very extensive
literature, which bears distinct evidences of its
non-apostolic origin, and is utterly unworthy of regard.
Our Lord gave them the "keys of the kingdom," and
by the gift of his Spirit fitted them to be the founders
and governors of his church (John 14:16, 17, 26; 15:26, 27;
16:7-15). To them, as representing his church, he gave the
commission to "preach the gospel to every
creature" (Matt. 28:18-20). After his ascension he
communicated to them, according to his promise,
supernatural gifts to qualify them for the discharge of
their duties (Acts 2:4; 1 Cor. 2:16; 2:7, 10, 13; 2 Cor.
5:20; 1 Cor. 11:2). Judas Iscariot, one of "the
twelve," fell by transgression, and Matthias was
substituted in his place (Acts 1:21). Saul of Tarsus was
afterwards added to their number (Acts 9:3-20; 20:4;
26:15-18; 1 Tim. 1:12; 2:7; 2 Tim. 1:11).
Luke has given some account of Peter, John, and the two
Jameses (Acts 12:2, 17; 15:13; 21:18), but beyond this we
know nothing from authentic history of the rest of the
original twelve. After the martyrdom of James the Greater
(Acts 12:2), James the Less usually resided at Jerusalem,
while Paul, "the apostle of the uncircumcision,"
usually travelled as a missionary among the Gentiles (Gal.
2:8). It was characteristic of the apostles and necessary
(1) that they should have seen the Lord, and been able to
testify of him and of his resurrection from personal
knowledge (John 15:27; Acts 1:21, 22; 1 Cor. 9:1; Acts
22:14, 15). (2.) They must have been immediately called to
that office by Christ (Luke 6:13; Gal. 1:1). (3.) It was
essential that they should be infallibly inspired, and thus
secured against all error and mistake in their public
teaching, whether by word or by writing (John 14:26; 16:13;
1 Thess. 2:13).
(4.) Another qualification was the power of working
miracles (Mark 16:20; Acts 2:43; 1 Cor. 12:8-11). The
apostles therefore could have had no successors. They are
the only authoritative teachers of the Christian doctrines.
The office of an apostle ceased with its first holders.
In 2 Cor. 8:23 and Phil. 2:25 the word
"messenger" is the rendering of the same Greek
word, elsewhere rendered "apostle."
Priests alone wore trousers. Both men and women wore
turbans. Kings and nobles usually had a store of costly
garments for festive occasions (Isa. 3:22; Zech. 3:4) and
for presents (Gen. 45:22; Esther 4:4; 6:8, 11; 1 Sam. 18:4;
2 Kings 5:5; 10:22). Prophets and ascetics wore coarse
garments (Isa. 20:2; Zech. 13:4; Matt. 3:4).
Under the Roman law the most remarkable case of appeal is
that of Paul from the tribunal of Festus at Caesarea to
that of the emperor at Rome (Acts 25:11, 12, 21, 25). Paul
availed himself of the privilege of a Roman citizen in this
matter.
The so-called "apple of Sodom" some have supposed
to be the Solanum sanctum (Heb. hedek), rendered
"brier" (q.v.) in Micah 7:4, a thorny plant
bearing fruit like the potato-apple. This shrub abounds in
the Jordan valley.
It was anciently divided into three parts:, (1.) Arabia
Felix (Happy Arabia), so called from its fertility. It
embraced a large portion of the country now known by the
name of Arabia. The Arabs call it Yemen. It lies between
the Red Sea and the Persian Gulf. (2.) Arabia Deserta, the
el-Badieh or "Great Wilderness" of the Arabs.
From this name is derived that which is usually given to
the nomadic tribes which wander over this region, the
"Bedaween," or, more generally,
"Bedouin," (3.) Arabia Petraea, i.e., the Rocky
Arabia, so called from its rocky mountains and stony
plains. It comprehended all the north-west portion of the
country, and is much better known to travellers than any
other portion. This country is, however, divided by modern
geographers into (1) Arabia Proper, or the Arabian
Peninsula; (2) Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert; and
(3) Western Arabia, which includes the peninsula of Sinai
and the Desert of Petra, originally inhabited by the
Horites (Gen. 14:6, etc.), but in later times by the
descendants of Esau, and known as the Land of Edom or
Idumea, also as the Desert of Seir or Mount Seir.
The whole land appears (Gen. 10) to have been inhabited by
a variety of tribes of different lineage, Ishmaelites,
Arabians, Idumeans, Horites, and Edomites; but at length
becoming amalgamated, they came to be known by the general
designation of Arabs. The modern nation of Arabs is
predominantly Ishmaelite. Their language is the most
developed and the richest of all the Semitic languages, and
is of great value to the student of Hebrew.
The Israelites wandered for forty years in Arabia. In the
days of Solomon, and subsequently, commercial intercourse
was to a considerable extent kept up with this country (1
Kings 10:15; 2 Chr. 9:14; 17:11). Arabians were present in
Jerusalem at Pentecost (Acts 2:11). Paul retired for a
season into Arabia after his conversion (Gal. 1:17). This
country is frequently referred to by the prophets (Isa.
21:11; 42:11; Jer. 25:24, etc.)
The word means high, or highlands, and as the name of a
country denotes that elevated region extending from the
northeast of Palestine to the Euphrates. It corresponded
generally with the Syria and Mesopotamia of the Greeks and
Romans. In Gen. 25:20; 31:20, 24; Deut. 26:5, the word
"Syrian" is properly "Aramean" (R.V.,
marg.). Damascus became at length the capital of the
several smaller kingdoms comprehended under the designation
"Aram" or "Syria."