(2.) A symbolic name for Jerusalem (Isa. 29:1, 2, 7) as
"victorious under God," and in Ezek. 43:15, 16,
for the altar (marg., Heb. 'ariel) of burnt offerings,
the secret of Israel's lion-like strength.
The ark of bulrushes in which the infant Moses was laid
(Ex. 2:3) is called in the Hebrew teebah, a word
derived from the Egyptian teb, meaning "a
chest." It was daubed with slime and with pitch. The
bulrushes of which it was made were the papyrus reed.
The sacred ark is designated by a different Hebrew word,
'aron', which is the common name for a chest
or coffer used for any purpose (Gen. 50:26; 2 Kings 12:9,
10). It is distinguished from all others by such titles as
the "ark of God" (1 Sam. 3:3), "ark of the
covenant" (Josh. 3:6; Heb. 9:4), "ark of the
testimony" (Ex. 25:22). It was made of acacia or
shittim wood, a cubit and a half broad and high and two
cubits long, and covered all over with the purest gold. Its
upper surface or lid, the mercy-seat, was surrounded with a
rim of gold; and on each of the two sides were two gold
rings, in which were placed two gold-covered poles by which
the ark could be carried (Num. 7:9; 10:21; 4:5,19, 20; 1
Kings 8:3, 6). Over the ark, at the two extremities, were
two cherubim, with their faces turned toward each other
(Lev. 16:2; Num. 7:89). Their outspread wings over the top
of the ark formed the throne of God, while the ark itself
was his footstool (Ex. 25:10-22; 37:1-9). The ark was
deposited in the "holy of holies," and was so
placed that one end of the poles by which it was carried
touched the veil which separated the two apartments of the
tabernacle (1 Kings 8:8). The two tables of stone which
constituted the "testimony" or evidence of
God's covenant with the people (Deut. 31:26), the
"pot of manna" (Ex. 16:33), and "Aaron's
rod that budded" (Num. 17:10), were laid up in the ark
(Heb. 9:4). (See TABERNACLE ¯T0003559) The ark and the
sanctuary were "the beauty of Israel" (Lam. 2:1).
During the journeys of the Israelites the ark was carried
by the priests in advance of the host (Num. 4:5, 6;
10:33-36; Ps. 68:1; 132:8). It was borne by the priests
into the bed of the Jordan, which separated, opening a
pathway for the whole of the host to pass over (Josh. 3:15,
16; 4:7, 10, 11, 17, 18). It was borne in the procession
round Jericho (Josh. 6:4, 6, 8, 11, 12). When carried it
was always wrapped in the veil, the badgers' skins, and
blue cloth, and carefully concealed even from the eyes of
the Levites who carried it. After the settlement of Israel
in Palestine the ark remained in the tabernacle at Gilgal
for a season, and was then removed to Shiloh till the time
of Eli, between 300 and 400 years (Jer. 7:12), when it was
carried into the field of battle so as to secure, as they
supposed, victory to the Hebrews, and was taken by the
Philistines (1 Sam. 4:3-11), who sent it back after
retaining it seven months (1 Sam. 5:7, 8). It remained then
at Kirjath-jearim (7:1,2) till the time of David (twenty
years), who wished to remove it to Jerusalem; but the
proper mode of removing it having been neglected, Uzzah was
smitten with death for putting "forth his hand to the
ark of God," and in consequence of this it was left in
the house of Obed-edom in Gath-rimmon for three months (2
Sam. 6:1-11), at the end of which time David removed it in
a grand procession to Jerusalem, where it was kept till a
place was prepared for it (12-19). It was afterwards
deposited by Solomon in the temple (1 Kings 8:6-9). When
the Babylonians destroyed Jerusalem and plundered the
temple, the ark was probably taken away by Nebuchadnezzar
and destroyed, as no trace of it is afterwards to be found.
The absence of the ark from the second temple was one of
the points in which it was inferior to the first temple.
(1.) The offensive weapons were different at different
periods of history. The "rod of iron" (Ps. 2:9)
is supposed to mean a mace or crowbar, an instrument of
great power when used by a strong arm. The "maul"
(Prov. 25:18; cognate Hebrew word rendered
"battle-axe" in Jer. 51:20, and "slaughter
weapon" in Ezek. 9:2) was a war-hammer or martel. The
"sword" is the usual translation of hereb,
which properly means "poniard." The real sword,
as well as the dirk-sword (which was always double-edged),
was also used (1 Sam. 17:39; 2 Sam. 20:8; 1 Kings 20:11).
The spear was another offensive weapon (Josh. 8:18; 1 Sam.
17:7). The javelin was used by light troops (Num. 25:7, 8;
1 Sam. 13:22). Saul threw a javelin at David (1 Sam. 19:9,
10), and so virtually absolved him from his allegiance. The
bow was, however, the chief weapon of offence. The arrows
were carried in a quiver, the bow being always unbent till
the moment of action (Gen. 27:3; 48:22; Ps. 18:34). The
sling was a favourite weapon of the Benjamites (1 Sam.
17:40; 1 Chr. 12:2. Comp. 1 Sam. 25:29).
(2.) Of the defensive armour a chief place is assigned to
the shield or buckler. There were the great shield or
target (the tzinnah), for the protection of the
whole person (Gen. 15:1; Ps. 47:9; 1 Sam. 17:7; Prov.
30:5), and the buckler (Heb. mageen) or small shield
(1 Kings 10:17; Ezek. 26:8). In Ps. 91:4
"buckler" is properly a roundel appropriated to
archers or slingers. The helmet (Ezek. 27:10; 1 Sam.
17:38), a covering for the head; the coat of mail or
corselet (1 Sam. 17:5), or habergeon (Neh. 4;16), harness
or breat-plate (Rev. 9:9), for the covering of the back and
breast and both upper arms (Isa. 59:17; Eph. 6:14). The
cuirass and corselet, composed of leather or quilted cloth,
were also for the covering of the body. Greaves, for the
covering of the legs, were worn in the time of David (1
Sam. 17:6). Reference is made by Paul (Eph. 6:14-17) to the
panoply of a Roman soldier. The shield here is the thureon,
a door-like oblong shield above all, i.e., covering the
whole person, not the small round shield. There is no
armour for the back, but only for the front.
(2.) One of the towns built by the tribe of Gad (Num.
32:34) "before Rabbah" (Josh. 13:25), the
Ammonite capital. It was famous in the history of Jephthah
(Judg. 11:33) and of David (2 Sam. 24:5). (Comp. Isa. 17:2;
2 Kings 15:29.)
(3.) A city in the south of Judah, 12 miles south-east of
Beersheba, to which David sent presents after recovering
the spoil from the Amalekites at Ziklag (1 Sam. 30:26, 28).
It was the native city of two of David's warriors (1
Chr. 11:44). It is now called Ar'arah.
The word is frequently employed as a symbol of calamity or
disease inflicted by God (Job 6:4; 34:6; Ps. 38:2; Deut.
32:23. Comp. Ezek. 5:16), or of some sudden danger (Ps.
91:5), or bitter words (Ps. 64:3), or false testimony
(Prov. 25:18).
(2.) The king mentioned in Ezra 7:1, in the seventh year
(B.C. 458) of whose reign Ezra led a second colony of Jews
back to Jerusalem, was probably Longimanus, who reigned for
forty years (B.C. 464-425); the grandson of Darius, who,
fourteen years later, permitted Nehemiah to return and
rebuild Jerusalem.
(2.) The "recorder" in the time of Hezekiah (2
Kings 18:18, 37).
(3.) The "keeper of the king's forest," to
whom Nehemiah requested from Artaxerxes a
"letter" that he might give him timber for the
temple at Jerusalem (Neh. 2:8).
To cover the head with ashes was a token of self-abhorrence
and humiliation (2 Sam. 13:19; Esther 4:3; Jer. 6:26,
etc.).
To feed on ashes (Isa. 44:20), means to seek that which
will prove to be vain and unsatisfactory, and hence it
denotes the unsatisfactory nature of idol-worship. (Comp.
Hos. 12:1).
Assur-bani-pal was a munificent patron of literature, and
the conqueror of Elam. Towards the middle of his reign his
empire was shaken by a great rebellion headed by his
brother in Babylon. The rebellion was finally put down, but
Egypt was lost, and the military power of Assyria was so
exhausted that it could with difficulty resist the hordes
of Kimmerians who poured over Western Asia. (See NINEVEH.)
Of wild asses two species are noticed, (1) that called in
Hebrew 'arod, mentioned Job 39:5 and Dan. 5:21,
noted for its swiftness; and (2) that called
pe're, the wild ass of Asia (Job 39:6-8; 6:5;
11:12; Isa. 32:14; Jer. 2:24; 14:6, etc.). The wild ass was
distinguished for its fleetness and its extreme shyness. In
allusion to his mode of life, Ishmael is likened to a wild
ass (Gen. 16:12. Here the word is simply rendered
"wild" in the Authorized Version, but in the
Revised Version, "wild-ass among men").
This infallible assurance, which believers may attain unto
as to their own personal salvation, is founded on the truth
of the promises (Heb. 6:18), on the inward evidence of
Christian graces, and on the testimony of the Spirit of
adoption (Rom. 8:16). That such a certainty may be attained
appears from the testimony of Scripture (Rom. 8:16; 1 John
2:3; 3:14), from the command to seek after it (Heb. 6:11; 2
Pet. 1:10), and from the fact that it has been attained (2
Tim. 1:12; 4:7, 8; 1 John 2:3; 4:16).
This full assurance is not of the essence of saving faith.
It is the result of faith, and posterior to it in the order
of nature, and so frequently also in the order of time.
True believers may be destitute of it. Trust itself is
something different from the evidence that we do trust.
Believers, moreover, are exhorted to go on to something
beyond what they at present have when they are exhorted to
seek the grace of full assurance (Heb. 10:22; 2 Pet.
1:5-10). The attainment of this grace is a duty, and is to
be diligently sought.
"Genuine assurance naturally leads to a legitimate and
abiding peace and joy, and to love and thankfulness to God;
and these from the very laws of our being to greater
buoyancy, strength, and cheerfulness in the practice of
obedience in every department of duty."
This assurance may in various ways be shaken, diminished,
and intermitted, but the principle out of which it springs
can never be lost. (See
FAITH.)
Of the early history of the kingdom of Assyria little is
positively known. In B.C. 1120 Tiglath-pileser I., the
greatest of the Assyrian kings, "crossed the
Euphrates, defeated the kings of the Hittites, captured the
city of Carchemish, and advanced as far as the shores of
the Mediterranean." He may be regarded as the founder
of the first Assyrian empire. After this the Assyrians
gradually extended their power, subjugating the states of
Northern Syria. In the reign of Ahab, king of Israel,
Shalmaneser II. marched an army against the Syrian states,
whose allied army he encountered and vanquished at Karkar.
This led to Ahab's casting off the yoke of Damascus and
allying himself with Judah. Some years after this the
Assyrian king marched an army against Hazael, king of
Damascus. He besieged and took that city. He also brought
under tribute Jehu, and the cities of Tyre and Sidon.
About a hundred years after this (B.C. 745) the crown was
seized by a military adventurer called Pul, who assumed the
name of Tiglath-pileser III. He directed his armies into
Syria, which had by this time regained its independence,
and took (B.C. 740) Arpad, near Aleppo, after a siege of
three years, and reduced Hamath. Azariah (Uzziah) was an
ally of the king of Hamath, and thus was compelled by
Tiglath-pileser to do him homage and pay a yearly tribute.
In B.C. 738, in the reign of Menahem, king of Israel, Pul
invaded Israel, and imposed on it a heavy tribute (2 Kings
15:19). Ahaz, the king of Judah, when engaged in a war
against Israel and Syria, appealed for help to this
Assyrian king by means of a present of gold and silver (2
Kings 16:8); who accordingly "marched against
Damascus, defeated and put Rezin to death, and besieged the
city itself." Leaving a portion of his army to
continue the siege, "he advanced through the province
east of Jordan, spreading fire and sword," and became
master of Philistia, and took Samaria and Damascus. He died
B.C. 727, and was succeeded by Shalmanezer IV., who ruled
till B.C. 722. He also invaded Syria (2 Kings 17:5), but
was deposed in favour of Sargon (q.v.) the Tartan, or
commander-in-chief of the army, who took Samaria (q.v.)
after a siege of three years, and so put an end to the
kingdom of Israel, carrying the people away into captivity,
B.C. 722 (2 Kings 17:1-6, 24; 18:7, 9). He also overran the
land of Judah, and took the city of Jerusalem (Isa. 10:6,
12, 22, 24, 34). Mention is next made of Sennacherib (B.C.
705), the son and successor of Sargon (2 Kings 18:13;
19:37; Isa. 7:17, 18); and then of Esar-haddon, his son and
successor, who took Manasseh, king of Judah, captive, and
kept him for some time a prisoner at Babylon, which he
alone of all the Assyrian kings made the seat of his
government (2 Kings 19:37; Isa. 37:38).
Assur-bani-pal, the son of Esarhaddon, became king, and in
Ezra 4:10 is referred to as Asnapper. From an early period
Assyria had entered on a conquering career, and having
absorbed Babylon, the kingdoms of Hamath, Damascus, and
Samaria, it conquered Phoenicia, and made Judea feudatory,
and subjected Philistia and Idumea. At length, however, its
power declined. In B.C. 727 the Babylonians threw off the
rule of the Assyrians, under the leadership of the powerful
Chaldean prince Merodach-baladan (2 Kings 20:12), who,
after twelve years, was subdued by Sargon, who now reunited
the kingdom, and ruled over a vast empire. But on his death
the smouldering flames of rebellion again burst forth, and
the Babylonians and Medes successfully asserted their
independence (B.C. 625), and Assyria fell according to the
prophecies of Isaiah (10:5-19), Nahum (3:19), and Zephaniah
(3:13), and the many separate kingdoms of which it was
composed ceased to recognize the "great king" (2
Kings 18:19; Isa. 36:4). Ezekiel (31) attests (about B.C.
586) how completely Assyria was overthrown. It ceases to be
a nation.
The oldest divisions of time were mainly based on the
observation of the movements of the heavenly bodies, the
"ordinances of heaven" (Gen. 1:14-18; Job 38:33;
Jer. 31:35; 33:25). Such observations led to the division
of the year into months and the mapping out of the
appearances of the stars into twelve portions, which
received from the Greeks the name of the
"zodiac." The word "Mazzaroth" (Job
38:32) means, as the margin notes, "the twelve
signs" of the zodiac. Astronomical observations were
also necessary among the Jews in order to the fixing of the
proper time for sacred ceremonies, the "new
moons," the "passover," etc. Many allusions
are found to the display of God's wisdom and power as
seen in the starry heavens (Ps. 8; 19:1-6; Isa. 51:6, etc.)
On his second missionary journey Paul visited this city
(Acts 17:15; comp. 1 Thess. 3:1), and delivered in the
Areopagus his famous speech (17:22-31). The altar of which
Paul there speaks as dedicated "to the [properly
"an"] unknown God" (23) was probably one of
several which bore the same inscription. It is supposed
that they originated in the practice of letting loose a
flock of sheep and goats in the streets of Athens on the
occasion of a plague, and of offering them up in sacrifice,
at the spot where they lay down, "to the god
concerned."
The meaning of the word is simply at-one-ment, i.e., the
state of being at one or being reconciled, so that
atonement is reconciliation. Thus it is used to denote the
effect which flows from the death of Christ.
But the word is also used to denote that by which this
reconciliation is brought about, viz., the death of Christ
itself; and when so used it means satisfaction, and in this
sense to make an atonement for one is to make satisfaction
for his offences (Ex. 32:30; Lev. 4:26; 5:16; Num. 6:11),
and, as regards the person, to reconcile, to propitiate God
in his behalf.
By the atonement of Christ we generally mean his work by
which he expiated our sins. But in Scripture usage the word
denotes the reconciliation itself, and not the means by
which it is effected. When speaking of Christ's saving
work, the word "satisfaction," the word used by
the theologians of the Reformation, is to be preferred to
the word "atonement." Christ's satisfaction
is all he did in the room and in behalf of sinners to
satisfy the demands of the law and justice of God.
Christ's work consisted of suffering and obedience, and
these were vicarious, i.e., were not merely for our
benefit, but were in our stead, as the suffering and
obedience of our vicar, or substitute. Our guilt is
expiated by the punishment which our vicar bore, and thus
God is rendered propitious, i.e., it is now consistent with
his justice to manifest his love to transgressors.
Expiation has been made for sin, i.e., it is covered. The
means by which it is covered is vicarious satisfaction, and
the result of its being covered is atonement or
reconciliation. To make atonement is to do that by virtue
of which alienation ceases and reconciliation is brought
about. Christ's mediatorial work and sufferings are the
ground or efficient cause of reconciliation with God. They
rectify the disturbed relations between God and man, taking
away the obstacles interposed by sin to their fellowship
and concord. The reconciliation is mutual, i.e., it is not
only that of sinners toward God, but also and pre-eminently
that of God toward sinners, effected by the sin-offering he
himself provided, so that consistently with the other
attributes of his character his love might flow forth in
all its fulness of blessing to men. The primary idea
presented to us in different forms throughout the Scripture
is that the death of Christ is a satisfaction of infinite
worth rendered to the law and justice of God (q.v.), and
accepted by him in room of the very penalty man had
incurred. It must also be constantly kept in mind that the
atonement is not the cause but the consequence of God's
love to guilty men (John 3:16; Rom. 3:24, 25; Eph. 1:7; 1
John 1:9; 4:9). The atonement may also be regarded as
necessary, not in an absolute but in a relative sense,
i.e., if man is to be saved, there is no other way than
this which God has devised and carried out (Ex. 34:7; Josh.
24:19; Ps. 5:4; 7:11; Nahum 1:2, 6; Rom. 3:5). This is
God's plan, clearly revealed; and that is enough for us
to know.
(2.) Son of Ahimaaz, who succeeded his grandfather Zadok as
high priest (1 Chr. 6:9; 1 Kings 4:2) in the days of
Solomon. He officiated at the consecration of the temple (1
Chr. 6:10).
(3.) The son of Johanan, high priest in the reign of Abijah
and Asa (2 Chr. 6:10, 11).
(4.) High priest in the reign of Uzziah, king of Judah (2
Kings 14:21; 2 Chr. 26:17-20). He was contemporary with the
prophets Isaiah, Amos, and Joel.
(5.) High priest in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 31:10-13).
Of the house of Zadok.
(6.) Several other priests and Levites of this name are
mentioned (1 Chr. 6:36; Ezra 7:1; 1 Chr. 9:11; Neh. 3:23,
etc.).
(7.) The original name of Abed-nego (Dan. 1:6, 7, 11, 16).
He was of the royal family of Judah, and with his other two
companions remarkable for his personal beauty and his
intelligence as well as piety.
(8.) The son of Oded, a remarkable prophet in the days of
Asa (2 Chr. 15:1). He stirred up the king and the people to
a great national reformation.
(2.) A city on the northern border of the tribe of Judah
(Josh. 15:10), called also Kirjath-jearim, q.v. (15:9; 1
Chr. 13:6), now Kuriet-el-Enab, or as some think,
'Erma.
(3.) A mountain on the north-western boundary of Judah and
Dan (Josh. 15:11).