The decrees of God are (1) efficacious, as they respect
those events he has determined to bring about by his own
immediate agency; or (2) permissive, as they respect those
events he has determined that free agents shall be
permitted by him to effect.
This doctrine ought to produce in our minds "humility,
in view of the infinite greatness and sovereignty of God,
and of the dependence of man; confidence and implicit
reliance upon wisdom, rightenousness, goodness, and
immutability of God's purpose."
(2.) A son of Jokshan, Abraham's son by Keturah (1 Chr.
1:32). His descendants settled on the Syrian borders about
the territory of Edom. They probably led a pastoral life.
But there were other dedications of the temple. (1) That of
Solomon's temple (1 Kings 8:2; 2 Chr. 5:3); (2) the
dedication in the days of Hezekiah (2 Chr. 29); and (3) the
dedication of the temple after the Captivity (Ezra 6:16).
It began in the year 2516 B.C., and continued twelve lunar
months and ten days, or exactly one solar year.
The cause of this judgment was the corruption and violence
that filled the earth in the ninth generation from Adam.
God in righteous indignation determined to purge the earth
of the ungodly race. Amid a world of crime and guilt there
was one household that continued faithful and true to God,
the household of Noah. "Noah was a just man and
perfect in his generations."
At the command of God, Noah made an ark 300 cubits long, 50
broad, and 30 high. He slowly proceeded with this work
during a period of one hundred and twenty years (Gen. 6:3).
At length the purpose of God began to be carried into
effect. The following table exhibits the order of events as
they occurred:
In the six hundredth year of his life Noah is commanded by
God to enter the ark, taking with him his wife, and his
three sons with their wives (Gen. 7:1-10).
The rain begins on the seventeenth day of the second month
(Gen. 7:11-17).
The rain ceases, the waters prevail, fifteen cubits upward
(Gen. 7:18-24).
The ark grounds on one of the mountains of Ararat on the
seventeenth day of the seventh month, or one hundred and
fifty days after the Deluge began (Gen. 8:1-4).
Tops of the mountains visible on the first day of the tenth
month (Gen. 8:5).
Raven and dove sent out forty days after this (Gen. 8:6-9).
Dove again sent out seven days afterwards; and in the
evening she returns with an olive leaf in her mouth (Gen.
8:10, 11).
Dove sent out the third time after an interval of other
seven days, and returns no more (Gen. 8:12).
The ground becomes dry on the first day of the first month
of the new year (Gen. 8:13).
Noah leaves the ark on the twenty-seventh day of the second
month (Gen. 8:14-19).
The historical truth of the narrative of the Flood is
established by the references made to it by our Lord (Matt.
24:37; comp. Luke 17:26). Peter speaks of it also (1 Pet.
3:20; 2 Pet. 2:5). In Isa. 54:9 the Flood is referred to as
"the waters of Noah." The Biblical narrative
clearly shows that so far as the human race was concerned
the Deluge was universal; that it swept away all men living
except Noah and his family, who were preserved in the ark;
and that the present human race is descended from those who
were thus preserved.
Traditions of the Deluge are found among all the great
divisions of the human family; and these traditions, taken
as a whole, wonderfully agree with the Biblical narrative,
and agree with it in such a way as to lead to the
conclusion that the Biblical is the authentic narrative, of
which all these traditions are more or less corrupted
versions. The most remarkable of these traditions is that
recorded on tablets prepared by order of Assur-bani-pal,
the king of Assyria. These were, however, copies of older
records which belonged to somewhere about B.C. 2000, and
which formed part of the priestly library at Erech (q.v.),
"the ineradicable remembrance of a real and terrible
event."
In Esther 8:9; 9:3 (R.V., "governor") it denotes
a Persian prefect "on this side" i.e., in the
region west of the Euphrates. It is the modern word
pasha.
In Acts 13:7, 8, 12; 18:12, it denotes a proconsul; i.e.,
the governor of a Roman province holding his appointment
from the senate. The Roman provinces were of two kinds, (1)
senatorial and (2) imperial. The appointment of a governor
to the former was in the hands of the senate, and he bore
the title of proconsul (Gr. anthupatos). The appointment of
a governor to the latter was in the hands of the emperor,
and he bore the title of propraetor (Gr. antistrategos).
The same Hebrew word is used also to denote the wilderness
of Arabia, which in winter and early spring supplies good
pasturage to the flocks of the nomad tribes than roam over
it (1 Kings 9:18).
The wilderness of Judah is the mountainous region along the
western shore of the Dead Sea, where David fed his
father's flocks (1 Sam. 17:28; 26:2). Thus in both of
these instances the word denotes a country without settled
inhabitants and without streams of water, but having good
pasturage for cattle; a country of wandering tribes, as
distinguished from that of a settled people (Isa. 35:1;
50:2; Jer. 4:11). Such, also, is the meaning of the word
"wilderness" in Matt. 3:3; 15:33; Luke 15:4.
(2.) The translation of the Hebrew Aribah',
"an arid tract" (Isa. 35:1, 6; 40:3; 41:19; 51:3,
etc.). The name Arabah is specially applied to the deep
valley of the Jordan (the Ghor of the Arabs), which extends
from the lake of Tiberias to the Elanitic gulf. While
midbar denotes properly a pastoral region,
arabah denotes a wilderness. It is also translated
"plains;" as "the plains of Jericho"
(Josh. 5:10; 2 Kings 25:5), "the plains of Moab"
(Num. 22:1; Deut. 34:1, 8), "the plains of the
wilderness" (2 Sam. 17:16).
(3.) In the Revised Version of Num. 21:20 the Hebrew word
jeshimon is properly rendered "desert,"
meaning the waste tracts on both shores of the Dead Sea.
This word is also rendered "desert" in Ps. 78:40;
106:14; Isa. 43:19, 20. It denotes a greater extent of
uncultivated country than the other words so rendered. It
is especially applied to the desert of the peninsula of
Arabia (Num. 21:20; 23:28), the most terrible of all the
deserts with which the Israelites were acquainted. It is
called "the desert" in Ex. 23:31; Deut. 11:24.
(4.) A dry place; hence a desolation (Ps. 9:6), desolate
(Lev. 26:34); the rendering of the Hebrew word
horbah'. It is rendered "desert" only in
Ps. 102:6, Isa. 48:21, and Ezek. 13:4, where it means the
wilderness of Sinai.
(5.) This word is the symbol of the Jewish church when they
had forsaken God (Isa. 40:3). Nations destitute of the
knowledge of God are called a "wilderness"
(32:15, midbar). It is a symbol of temptation,
solitude, and persecution (Isa. 27:10, midbar_; 33:9,
_arabah).
It consists chiefly of three discourses delivered by Moses
a short time before his death. They were spoken to all
Israel in the plains of Moab, in the eleventh month of the
last year of their wanderings.
The first discourse (1-4:40) recapitulates the chief events
of the last forty years in the wilderness, with earnest
exhortations to obedience to the divine ordinances, and
warnings against the danger of forsaking the God of their
fathers.
The seond discourse (5-26:19) is in effect the body of the
whole book. The first address is introductory to it. It
contains practically a recapitulation of the law already
given by God at Mount Sinai, together with many admonitions
and injunctions as to the course of conduct they were to
follow when they were settled in Canaan.
The concluding discourse (ch. 27-30) relates almost wholly
to the solemn sanctions of the law, the blessings to the
obedient, and the curse that would fall on the rebellious.
He solemnly adjures them to adhere faithfully to the
covenant God had made with them, and so secure for
themselves and their posterity the promised blessings.
These addresses to the people are followed by what may be
called three appendices, namely (1), a song which God had
commanded Moses to write (32:1-47); (2) the blessings he
pronounced on the separate tribes (ch. 33); and (3) the
story of his death (32:48-52) and burial (ch. 34), written
by some other hand, probably that of Joshua.
These farewell addresses of Moses to the tribes of Israel
he had so long led in the wilderness "glow in each
line with the emotions of a great leader recounting to his
contemporaries the marvellous story of their common
experience. The enthusiasm they kindle, even to-day, though
obscured by translation, reveals their matchless adaptation
to the circumstances under which they were first spoken.
Confidence for the future is evoked by remembrance of the
past. The same God who had done mighty works for the tribes
since the Exodus would cover their head in the day of
battle with the nations of Palestine, soon to be invaded.
Their great lawgiver stands before us, vigorous in his
hoary age, stern in his abhorrence of evil, earnest in his
zeal for God, but mellowed in all relations to earth by his
nearness to heaven. The commanding wisdom of his
enactments, the dignity of his position as the founder of
the nation and the first of prophets, enforce his
utterances. But he touches our deepest emotions by the
human tenderness that breathes in all his words. Standing
on the verge of life, he speaks as a father giving his
parting counsels to those he loves; willing to depart and
be with God he has served so well, but fondly lengthening
out his last farewell to the dear ones of earth. No book
can compare with Deuteronomy in its mingled sublimity and
tenderness." Geikie, Hours, etc.
The whole style and method of this book, its tone and its
peculiarities of conception and expression, show that it
must have come from one hand. That the author was none
other than Moses is established by the following
considerations: (1.) The uniform tradition both of the
Jewish and the Christian Church down to recent times. (2.)
The book professes to have been written by Moses (1:1;
29:1; 31:1, 9-11, etc.), and was obviously intended to be
accepted as his work. (3.) The incontrovertible testimony
of our Lord and his apostles (Matt. 19:7, 8; Mark 10:3, 4;
John 5:46, 47; Acts 3:22; 7:37; Rom. 10:19) establishes the
same conclusion. (4.) The frequent references to it in the
later books of the canon (Josh. 8:31; 1 Kings 2:9; 2 Kings
14:6; 2 Chr. 23:18; 25:4; 34:14; Ezra 3:2; 7:6; Neh. 8:1;
Dan. 9:11, 13) prove its antiquity; and (5) the archaisms
found in it are in harmony with the age in which Moses
lived. (6.) Its style and allusions are also strikingly
consistent with the circumstances and position of Moses and
of the people at that time.
This body of positive evidence cannot be set aside by the
conjectures and reasonings of modern critics, who contended
that the book was somewhat like a forgery, introduced among
the Jews some seven or eight centuries after the Exodus.
In Lev. 17:7 the word "devil" is the translation
of the Hebrew sair, meaning a "goat" or
"satyr" (Isa. 13:21; 34:14), alluding to the
wood-daemons, the objects of idolatrous worship among the
heathen.
In Deut. 32:17 and Ps. 106:37 it is the translation of
Hebrew shed, meaning lord, and idol, regarded by the
Jews as a "demon," as the word is rendered in the
Revised Version.
In the narratives of the Gospels regarding the
"casting out of devils" a different Greek word
(daimon) is used. In the time of our Lord there were
frequent cases of demoniacal possession (Matt. 12:25-30;
Mark 5:1-20; Luke 4:35; 10:18, etc.).
(2.) A precious stone (Heb. shamir', a sharp point)
mentioned in Jer. 17:1. From its hardness it was used for
cutting and perforating other minerals. It is rendered
"adamant" (q.v.) in Ezek. 3:9, Zech. 7:12. It is
the hardest and most valuable of precious stones.
(1.) Many were dispersed over Assyria, Media, Babylonia,
and Persia, descendants of those who had been transported
thither by the Exile. The ten tribes, after existing as a
separate kingdom for two hundred and fifty-five years, were
carried captive (B.C. 721) by Shalmaneser (or Sargon), king
of Assyria. They never returned to their own land as a
distinct people, although many individuals from among these
tribes, there can be no doubt, joined with the bands that
returned from Babylon on the proclamation of Cyrus.
(2.) Many Jews migrated to Egypt and took up their abode
there. This migration began in the days of Solomon (2 Kings
18:21, 24; Isa. 30:7). Alexander the Great placed a large
number of Jews in Alexandria, which he had founded, and
conferred on them equal rights with the Egyptians. Ptolemy
Philadelphus, it is said, caused the Jewish Scriptures to
be translated into Greek (the work began B.C. 284), for the
use of the Alexandrian Jews. The Jews in Egypt continued
for many ages to exercise a powerful influence on the
public interests of that country. From Egypt they spread
along the coast of Africa to Cyrene (Acts 2:10) and to
Ethiopia (8:27).
(3.) After the time of Seleucus Nicator (B.C. 280), one of
the captains of Alexander the Great, large numbers of Jews
migrated into Syria, where they enjoyed equal rights with
the Macedonians. From Syria they found their way into Asia
Minor. Antiochus the Great, king of Syria and Asia, removed
3,000 families of Jews from Mesopotamia and Babylonia, and
planted them in Phrygia and Lydia.
(4.) From Asia Minor many Jews moved into Greece and
Macedonia, chiefly for purposes of commerce. In the
apostles' time they were found in considerable numbers
in all the principal cities.
From the time of Pompey the Great (B.C. 63) numbers of Jews
from Palestine and Greece went to Rome, where they had a
separate quarter of the city assigned to them. Here they
enjoyed considerable freedom.
Thus were the Jews everywhere scattered abroad. This, in
the overruling providence of God, ultimately contributed in
a great degree toward opening the way for the spread of the
gospel into all lands.
Dispersion, from the plain of Shinar. This was occasioned
by the confusion of tongues at Babel (Gen. 11:9). They were
scattered abroad "every one after his tongue, after
their families, in their nations" (Gen. 10:5, 20,31).
The tenth chapter of Genesis gives us an account of the
principal nations of the earth in their migrations from the
plain of Shinar, which was their common residence after the
Flood. In general, it may be said that the descendants of
Japheth were scattered over the north, those of Shem over
the central regions, and those of Ham over the extreme
south. The following table shows how the different families
were dispersed:
But beyond these various forms of superstition, there are
instances of divination on record in the Scriptures by
which God was pleased to make known his will.
(1.) There was divination by lot, by which, when resorted
to in matters of moment, and with solemnity, God intimated
his will (Josh. 7:13). The land of Canaan was divided by
lot (Num. 26:55, 56); Achan's guilt was detected (Josh.
7:16-19), Saul was elected king (1 Sam. 10:20, 21), and
Matthias chosen to the apostleship, by the solem lot (Acts
1:26). It was thus also that the scape-goat was determined
(Lev. 16:8-10).
(2.) There was divination by dreams (Gen. 20:6; Deut. 13:1,
3; Judg. 7:13, 15; Matt. 1:20; 2:12, 13, 19, 22). This is
illustrated in the history of Joseph (Gen. 41:25-32) and of
Daniel (2:27; 4:19-28).
(3.) By divine appointment there was also divination by the
Urim and Thummim (Num. 27:21), and by the ephod.
(4.) God was pleased sometimes to vouch-safe direct vocal
communications to men (Deut. 34:10; Ex. 3:4; 4:3; Deut.
4:14, 15; 1 Kings 19:12). He also communed with men from
above the mercy-seat (Ex. 25:22), and at the door of the
tabernacle (Ex. 29:42, 43).
(5.) Through his prophets God revealed himself, and gave
intimations of his will (2 Kings 13:17; Jer. 51:63, 64).
(2.) An Ahohite, father of Eleazar, who was one of
David's three heroes (2 Sam. 23:9; 1 Chr. 11:12). He
was the same with Dodai mentioned in 1 Chr. 27:4.
(3.) A Bethlehemite, and father of Elhanan, who was one of
David's thirty heroes (2 Sam. 23:24).
As the dog was an unclean animal, the terms
"dog," "dog's head," "dead
dog," were used as terms of reproach or of humiliation
(1 Sam. 24:14; 2 Sam. 3:8; 9:8; 16:9). Paul calls false
apostles "dogs" (Phil. 3:2). Those who are shut
out of the kingdom of heaven are also so designated (Rev.
22:15). Persecutors are called "dogs" (Ps.
22:16). Hazael's words, "Thy servant which is but
a dog" (2 Kings 8:13), are spoken in mock
humility=impossible that one so contemptible as he should
attain to such power.
The entrances of the tabernacle had curtains (Ex. 26:31-33,
36). The "valley of Achor" is called a "door
of hope," because immediately after the execution of
Achan the Lord said to Joshua, "Fear not," and
from that time Joshua went forward in a career of
uninterrupted conquest. Paul speaks of a "door
opened" for the spread of the gospel (1 Cor. 16:9; 2
Cor. 2:12; Col. 4:3). Our Lord says of himself, "I am
the door" (John 10:9). John (Rev. 4:1) speaks of a
"door opened in heaven."
It was the residence of Elisha (2 Kings 6:13), and the
scene of a remarkable vision of chariots and horses of fire
surrounding the mountain on which the city stood. It is
identified with the modern Tell-Dothan, on the south side
of the plain of Jezreel, about 12 miles north of Samaria,
among the hills of Gilboa. The "two wells" are
still in existence, one of which bears the name of the
"pit of Joseph" (Jubb Yusuf).
(2.) Heb. tannin. Some great sea monster (Jer. 51:34). In
Isa. 51:9 it may denote the crocodile. In Gen. 1:21 (Heb.
plural tanninim) the Authorized Version renders
"whales," and the Revised Version "sea
monsters." It is rendered "serpent" in Ex.
7:9. It is used figuratively in Ps. 74:13; Ezek. 29:3.
In the New Testament the word "dragon" is found
only in Rev. 12:3, 4, 7, 9, 16, 17, etc., and is there used
metaphorically of "Satan."
To Joseph "the Lord appeared in a dream," and
gave him instructions regarding the infant Jesus (Matt.
1:20; 2:12, 13, 19). In a vision of the night a "man
of Macedonia" stood before Paul and said, "Come
over into Macedonia and help us" (Acts 16:9; see also
18:9; 27:23).
(2.) Colour. The prevailing colour was the natural white of
the material used, which was sometimes rendered purer by
the fuller's art (Ps. 104:1, 2; Isa. 63:3; Mark 9:3).
The Hebrews were acquainted with the art of dyeing (Gen.
37:3, 23). Various modes of ornamentation were adopted in
the process of weaving (Ex. 28:6; 26:1, 31; 35:25), and by
needle-work (Judg. 5:30; Ps. 45:13). Dyed robes were
imported from foreign countries, particularly from
Phoenicia (Zeph. 1:8). Purple and scarlet robes were the
marks of the wealthy (Luke 16:19; 2 Sam. 1:24).
(3.) Form. The robes of men and women were not very much
different in form from each other.
(a) The "coat" (kethoneth), of wool, cotton, or
linen, was worn by both sexes. It was a closely-fitting
garment, resembling in use and form our shirt (John 19:23).
It was kept close to the body by a girdle (John 21:7). A
person wearing this "coat" alone was described as
naked (1 Sam. 19:24; Isa. 20:2; 2 Kings 6:30; John 21:7);
deprived of it he would be absolutely naked.
(b) A linen cloth or wrapper (sadin) of fine linen, used
somewhat as a night-shirt (Mark 14:51). It is mentioned in
Judg. 14:12, 13, and rendered there "sheets."
(c) An upper tunic (meil), longer than the "coat"
(1 Sam. 2:19; 24:4; 28:14). In 1 Sam. 28:14 it is the
mantle in which Samuel was enveloped; in 1 Sam. 24:4 it is
the "robe" under which Saul slept. The disciples
were forbidden to wear two "coats" (Matt. 10:10;
Luke 9:3).
(d) The usual outer garment consisted of a piece of woollen
cloth like a Scotch plaid, either wrapped round the body or
thrown over the shoulders like a shawl, with the ends
hanging down in front, or it might be thrown over the head
so as to conceal the face (2 Sam. 15:30; Esther 6:12). It
was confined to the waist by a girdle, and the fold formed
by the overlapping of the robe served as a pocket (2 Kings
4:39; Ps. 79:12; Hag. 2:12; Prov. 17:23; 21:14).
Female dress. The "coat" was common to both sexes
(Cant. 5:3). But peculiar to females were (1) the
"veil" or "wimple," a kind of shawl
(Ruth 3:15; rendered "mantle," R.V., Isa. 3:22);
(2) the "mantle," also a species of shawl (Isa.
3:22); (3) a "veil," probably a light summer
dress (Gen. 24:65); (4) a "stomacher," a holiday
dress (Isa. 3:24). The outer garment terminated in an ample
fringe or border, which concealed the feet (Isa. 47:2; Jer.
13:22).
The dress of the Persians is described in Dan. 3:21.
The reference to the art of sewing are few, inasmuch as the
garments generally came forth from the loom ready for being
worn, and all that was required in the making of clothes
devolved on the women of a family (Prov. 31:22; Acts 9:39).
Extravagance in dress is referred to in Jer. 4:30; Ezek.
16:10; Zeph. 1:8 (R.V., "foreign apparel"); 1
Tim. 2:9; 1 Pet. 3:3. Rending the robes was expressive of
grief (Gen. 37:29, 34), fear (1 Kings 21:27), indignation
(2 Kings 5:7), or despair (Judg. 11:35; Esther 4:1).
Shaking the garments, or shaking the dust from off them,
was a sign of renunciation (Acts 18:6); wrapping them round
the head, of awe (1 Kings 19:13) or grief (2 Sam. 15:30;
casting them off, of excitement (Acts 22:23); laying hold
of them, of supplication (1 Sam. 15:27). In the case of
travelling, the outer garments were girded up (1 Kings
18:46). They were thrown aside also when they would impede
action (Mark 10:50; John 13:4; Acts 7:58).
To drink water by measure (Ezek. 4:11), and to buy water to
drink (Lam. 5:4), denote great scarcity. To drink blood
means to be satiated with slaughter.
The Jews carefully strained their drinks through a sieve,
through fear of violating the law of Lev. 11:20, 23, 41,
42. (See Matt. 23:24. "Strain at" should be
"strain out.")
The word is used figuratively, when men are spoken of as
being drunk with sorrow, and with the wine of God's
wrath (Isa. 63:6; Jer. 51:57; Ezek. 23:33). To "add
drunkenness to thirst" (Deut. 29:19, A.V.) is a
proverbial expression, rendered in the Revised Version
"to destroy the moist with the dry", i.e., the
well-watered equally with the dry land, meaning that the
effect of such walking in the imagination of their own
hearts would be to destroy one and all.
There was also a town of this name in Judah (Josh. 15:52),
which has been identified with ed-Domeh, about 10 miles
southwest of Hebron. The place mentioned in the
"burden" of the prophet Isaiah (21:11) is Edom or
Idumea.
(2.) Used as fuel, a substitute for firewood, which was
with difficulty procured in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt (Ezek.
4:12-15), where cows' and camels' dung is used to
the present day for this purpose.
To cast dust on the head was a sign of mourning (Josh.
7:6); and to sit in dust, of extreme affliction (Isa.
47:1). "Dust" is used to denote the grave (Job
7:21). "To shake off the dust from one's
feet" against another is to renounce all future
intercourse with him (Matt. 10:14; Acts 13:51). To
"lick the dust" is a sign of abject submission
(Ps. 72:9); and to throw dust at one is a sign of
abhorrence (2 Sam. 16:13; comp. Acts 22:23).
God "dwells in light" (1 Tim. 6:16; 1 John 1:7),
in heaven (Ps. 123:1), in his church (Ps. 9:11; 1 John
4:12). Christ dwelt on earth in the days of his humiliation
(John 1:14). He now dwells in the hearts of his people
(Eph. 3:17-19). The Holy Spirit dwells in believers (1 Cor.
3:16; 2 Tim. 1:14). We are exhorted to "let the word
of God dwell in us richly" (Col. 3:16; Ps. 119:11).
Dwell deep occurs only in Jer. 49:8, and refers to the
custom of seeking refuge from impending danger, in retiring
to the recesses of rocks and caverns, or to remote places
in the desert.
The form of Eastern dwellings differed in many respects
from that of dwellings in Western lands. The larger houses
were built in a quadrangle enclosing a court-yard (Luke
5:19; 2 Sam. 17:18; Neh. 8:16) surrounded by galleries,
which formed the guest-chamber or reception-room for
visitors. The flat roof, surrounded by a low parapet, was
used for many domestic and social purposes. It was reached
by steps from the court. In connection with it (2 Kings
23:12) was an upper room, used as a private chamber (2 Sam
18:33; Dan. 6:11), also as a bedroom (2 Kings 23:12), a
sleeping apartment for guests (2 Kings 4:10), and as a
sick-chamber (1 Kings 17:19). The doors, sometimes of
stone, swung on morticed pivots, and were generally
fastened by wooden bolts. The houses of the more wealthy
had a doorkeeper or a female porter (John 18:16; Acts
12:13). The windows generally opened into the courtyard,
and were closed by a lattice (Judg. 5:28). The interior
rooms were set apart for the female portion of the
household.
The furniture of the room (2 Kings 4:10) consisted of a
couch furnished with pillows (Amos 6:4; Ezek. 13:20); and
besides this, chairs, a table and lanterns or lamp-stands
(2 Kings 4:10).