Faith is the result of teaching (Rom. 10:14-17). Knowledge
is an essential element in all faith, and is sometimes
spoken of as an equivalent to faith (John 10:38; 1 John
2:3). Yet the two are distinguished in this respect, that
faith includes in it assent, which is an act of the will in
addition to the act of the understanding. Assent to the
truth is of the essence of faith, and the ultimate ground
on which our assent to any revealed truth rests is the
veracity of God.
Historical faith is the apprehension of and assent to
certain statements which are regarded as mere facts of
history.
Temporary faith is that state of mind which is awakened in
men (e.g., Felix) by the exhibition of the truth and by the
influence of religious sympathy, or by what is sometimes
styled the common operation of the Holy Spirit.
Saving faith is so called because it has eternal life
inseparably connected with it. It cannot be better defined
than in the words of the Assembly's Shorter Catechism:
"Faith in Jesus Christ is a saving grace, whereby we
receive and rest upon him alone for salvation, as he is
offered to us in the gospel."
The object of saving faith is the whole revealed Word of
God. Faith accepts and believes it as the very truth most
sure. But the special act of faith which unites to Christ
has as its object the person and the work of the Lord Jesus
Christ (John 7:38; Acts 16:31). This is the specific act of
faith by which a sinner is justified before God (Rom. 3:22,
25; Gal. 2:16; Phil. 3:9; John 3:16-36; Acts 10:43; 16:31).
In this act of faith the believer appropriates and rests on
Christ alone as Mediator in all his offices.
This assent to or belief in the truth received upon the
divine testimony has always associated with it a deep sense
of sin, a distinct view of Christ, a consenting will, and a
loving heart, together with a reliance on, a trusting in,
or resting in Christ. It is that state of mind in which a
poor sinner, conscious of his sin, flees from his guilty
self to Christ his Saviour, and rolls over the burden of
all his sins on him. It consists chiefly, not in the assent
given to the testimony of God in his Word, but in embracing
with fiducial reliance and trust the one and only Saviour
whom God reveals. This trust and reliance is of the essence
of faith. By faith the believer directly and immediately
appropriates Christ as his own. Faith in its direct act
makes Christ ours. It is not a work which God graciously
accepts instead of perfect obedience, but is only the hand
by which we take hold of the person and work of our
Redeemer as the only ground of our salvation.
Saving faith is a moral act, as it proceeds from a renewed
will, and a renewed will is necessary to believing assent
to the truth of God (1 Cor. 2:14; 2 Cor. 4:4). Faith,
therefore, has its seat in the moral part of our nature
fully as much as in the intellectual. The mind must first
be enlightened by divine teaching (John 6:44; Acts 13:48; 2
Cor. 4:6; Eph. 1:17, 18) before it can discern the things
of the Spirit.
Faith is necessary to our salvation (Mark 16:16), not
because there is any merit in it, but simply because it is
the sinner's taking the place assigned him by God, his
falling in with what God is doing.
The warrant or ground of faith is the divine testimony, not
the reasonableness of what God says, but the simple fact
that he says it. Faith rests immediately on, "Thus
saith the Lord." But in order to this faith the
veracity, sincerity, and truth of God must be owned and
appreciated, together with his unchangeableness. God's
word encourages and emboldens the sinner personally to
transact with Christ as God's gift, to close with him,
embrace him, give himself to Christ, and take Christ as
his. That word comes with power, for it is the word of God
who has revealed himself in his works, and especially in
the cross. God is to be believed for his word's sake,
but also for his name's sake.
Faith in Christ secures for the believer freedom from
condemnation, or justification before God; a participation
in the life that is in Christ, the divine life (John 14:19;
Rom. 6:4-10; Eph. 4:15,16, etc.); "peace with
God" (Rom. 5:1); and sanctification (Acts 26:18; Gal.
5:6; Acts 15:9).
All who thus believe in Christ will certainly be saved
(John 6:37, 40; 10:27, 28; Rom. 8:1).
The history of the Fall is recorded in Gen. 2 and 3. That
history is to be literally interpreted. It records facts
which underlie the whole system of revealed truth. It is
referred to by our Lord and his apostles not only as being
true, but as furnishing the ground of all God's
subsequent dispensations and dealings with the children of
men. The record of Adam's temptation and fall must be
taken as a true historical account, if we are to understand
the Bible at all as a revelation of God's purpose of
mercy.
The effects of this first sin upon our first parents
themselves were (1) "shame, a sense of degradation and
pollution; (2) dread of the displeasure of God, or a sense
of guilt, and the consequent desire to hide from his
presence. These effects were unavoidable. They prove the
loss not only of innocence but of original righteousness,
and, with it, of the favour and fellowship of God. The
state therefore to which Adam was reduced by his
disobedience, so far as his subjective condition is
concerned, was analogous to that of the fallen angels. He
was entirely and absolutely ruined" (Hodge's
Theology).
But the unbelief and disobedience of our first parents
brought not only on themselves this misery and ruin, it
entailed also the same sad consequences on all their
descendants. (1.) The guilt, i.e., liability to punishment,
of that sin comes by imputation upon all men, because all
were represented by Adam in the covenant of works (q.v.).
(2.) Hence, also, all his descendants inherit a corrupt
nature. In all by nature there is an inherent and
prevailing tendency to sin. This universal depravity is
taught by universal experience. All men sin as soon as they
are capable of moral actions. The testimony of the
Scriptures to the same effect is most abundant (Rom. 1; 2;
3:1-19, etc.).
(3.) This innate depravity is total: we are by nature
"dead in trespasses and sins," and must be
"born again" before we can enter into the kingdom
(John 3:7, etc.).
(4.) Resulting from this "corruption of our whole
nature" is our absolute moral inability to change our
nature or to obey the law of God.
Commenting on John 9:3, Ryle well remarks: "A deep and
instructive principle lies in these words. They surely
throw some light on that great question, the origin of
evil. God has thought fit to allow evil to exist in order
that he may have a platform for showing his mercy, grace,
and compassion. If man had never fallen there would have
been no opportunity of showing divine mercy. But by
permitting evil, mysterious as it seems, God's works of
grace, mercy, and wisdom in saving sinners have been
wonderfully manifested to all his creatures. The redeeming
of the church of elect sinners is the means of 'showing
to principalities and powers the manifold wisdom of
God' (Eph. 3:10). Without the Fall we should have known
nothing of the Cross and the Gospel."
On the monuments of Egypt are found representations of a
deity in human form, piercing with a spear the head of a
serpent. This is regarded as an illustration of the wide
dissemination of the tradition of the Fall. The story of
the "golden age," which gives place to the
"iron age", the age of purity and innocence,
which is followed by a time when man becomes a prey to sin
and misery, as represented in the mythology of Greece and
Rome, has also been regarded as a tradition of the Fall.
Famines were sent as an effect of God's anger against a
guilty people (2 Kings 8:1, 2; Amos 8:11; Deut. 28:22-42; 2
Sam. 21:1; 2 Kings 6:25-28; 25:3; Jer. 14:15; 19:9; 42:17,
etc.). A famine was predicted by Agabus (Acts 11:28).
Josephus makes mention of the famine which occurred A.D.
45. Helena, queen of Adiabene, being at Jerusalem at that
time, procured corn from Alexandria and figs from Cyprus
for its poor inhabitants.
(2.) Matt. 5:26; Mark 12:42 (Gr. kodrantes), the quadrant,
the fourth of an as, equal to two lepta, mites. The
lepton (mite) was the very smallest copper coin.
The only other mention of a periodical fast in the Old
Testament is in Zech. 7:1-7; 8:19, from which it appears
that during their captivity the Jews observed four annual
fasts.
(1.) The fast of the fourth month, kept on the seventeenth
day of Tammuz, the anniversary of the capture of Jerusalem
by the Chaldeans; to commemorate also the incident recorded
Ex. 32:19. (Comp. Jer. 52:6, 7.)
(2.) The fast of the fifth month, kept on the ninth of Ab
(comp. Num. 14:27), to commemorate the burning of the city
and temple (Jer. 52:12, 13).
(3.) The fast of the seventh month, kept on the third of
Tisri (comp. 2 Kings 25), the anniversary of the murder of
Gedaliah (Jer. 41:1, 2).
(4.) The fast of the tenth month (comp. Jer. 52:4; Ezek.
33:21; 2 Kings 25:1), to commemorate the beginning of the
siege of the holy city by Nebuchadnezzar.
There was in addition to these the fast appointed by Esther
(4:16).
Public national fasts on account of sin or to supplicate
divine favour were sometimes held. (1.) 1 Sam. 7:6; (2.) 2
Chr. 20:3; (3.) Jer. 36:6-10; (4.) Neh. 9:1.
There were also local fasts. (1.) Judg. 20:26; (2.) 2 Sam.
1:12; (3.) 1 Sam. 31:13; (4.) 1 Kings 21:9-12; (5.) Ezra
8:21-23: (6.) Jonah 3:5-9.
There are many instances of private occasional fasting (1
Sam. 1:7: 20:34; 2 Sam. 3:35; 12:16; 1 Kings 21:27; Ezra
10:6; Neh. 1:4; Dan. 10:2,3). Moses fasted forty days (Ex.
24:18; 34:28), and so also did Elijah (1 Kings 19:8). Our
Lord fasted forty days in the wilderness (Matt. 4:2).
In the lapse of time the practice of fasting was lamentably
abused (Isa. 58:4; Jer. 14:12; Zech. 7:5). Our Lord rebuked
the Pharisees for their hypocritical pretences in fasting
(Matt. 6:16). He himself appointed no fast. The early
Christians, however, observed the ordinary fasts according
to the law of their fathers (Acts 13:3; 14:23; 2 Cor. 6:5).
It is used figuratively for a dull, stupid state of mind
(Ps 17:10).
In Joel 2:24 the word is equivalent to "vat," a
vessel. The hebrew word here thus rendered is elsewhere
rendered "wine-fat" and "press-fat"
(Hag. 2:16; Isa. 63:2).
Applied to God (Ex. 4:22; Deut. 32:6; 2 Sam. 7:14; Ps.
89:27, 28, etc.). (1.) As denoting his covenant relation to
the Jews (Jer. 31:9; Isa. 63:16; 64:8; John 8:41, etc.).
(2.) Believers are called God's "sons" (John
1:12; Rom. 8:16; Matt. 6:4, 8, 15, 18; 10:20, 29). They
also call him "Father" (Rom. 1:7; 1 Cor. 1:3; 2
Cor. 1:2; Gal. 1:4)
A holy fear is enjoined also in the New Testament as a
preventive of carelessness in religion, and as an incentive
to penitence (Matt. 10:28; 2 Cor. 5:11; 7:1; Phil. 2:12;
Eph. 5:21; Heb. 12:28, 29).
Feasting was a part of the observances connected with the
offering up of sacrifices (Deut. 12:6, 7; 1 Sam. 9:19;
16:3, 5), and with the annual festivals (Deut. 16:11).
"It was one of the designs of the greater solemnities,
which required the attendance of the people at the sacred
tent, that the oneness of the nation might be maintained
and cemented together, by statedly congregating in one
place, and with one soul taking part in the same religious
services. But that oneness was primarily and chiefly a
religious and not merely a political one; the people were
not merely to meet as among themselves, but with Jehovah,
and to present themselves before him as one body; the
meeting was in its own nature a binding of themselves in
fellowship with Jehovah; so that it was not politics and
commerce that had here to do, but the soul of the Mosaic
dispensation, the foundation of the religious and political
existence of Israel, the covenant with Jehovah. To keep the
people's consciousness alive to this, to revive,
strengthen, and perpetuate it, nothing could be so well
adapated as these annual feasts."
At the end of a two years' term, Porcius Festus was
appointed in the room of Felix (A.D. 60), who proceeded to
Rome, and was there accused of cruelty and malversation of
office by the Jews of Caesarea. The accusation was rendered
nugatory by the influence of his brother Pallas with Nero.
(See Josephus, Ant. xx. 8, 9.)
Drusilla, the daughter of Herod Agrippa, having been
induced by Felix to desert her husband, the king of Emesa,
became his adulterous companion. She was seated beside him
when Paul "reasoned" before the judge. When Felix
gave place to Festus, being "willing to do the Jews a
pleasure," he left Paul bound.
The Hebrews found many fenced cities when they entered the
Promised Land (Num. 13:28; 32:17, 34-42; Josh. 11:12, 13;
Judg. 1:27-33), and we may estimate the strength of some of
these cities from the fact that they were long held in
possession by the Canaanites. The Jebusites, e.g., were
enabled to hold possession of Jerusalem till the time of
David (2 Sam. 5:6, 7; 1 Chr. 11:5).
Several of the kings of Israel and Judah distinguished
themselves as fortifiers or "builders" of cities.
(b) The seventh new moon, or the feast of Trumpets (Num.
28:11-15; 29:1-6).
(c) The Sabbatical year (Ex. 23:10, 11; Lev. 25:2-7).
(d) The year of jubilee (Lev. 23-35; 25: 8-16; 27:16-25).
(2.) The great feasts were,
(a) The Passover. (b) The feast of Pentecost, or of weeks.
(c) The feast of Tabernacles, or of ingathering.
On each of these occasions every male Israelite was
commanded "to appear before the Lord" (Deut.
27:7; Neh. 8:9-12). The attendance of women was voluntary.
(Comp. Luke 2:41; 1 Sam. 1:7; 2:19.) The promise that God
would protect their homes (Ex. 34:23, 24) while all the
males were absent in Jerusalem at these feasts was always
fulfilled. "During the whole period between Moses and
Christ we never read of an enemy invading the land at the
time of the three festivals. The first instance on record
is thirty-three years after they had withdrawn from
themselves the divine protection by imbruing their hands in
the Saviour's blood, when Cestius, the Roman general,
slew fifty of the people of Lydda while all the rest had
gone up to the feast of Tabernacles, A.D. 66."
These festivals, besides their religious purpose, had an
important bearing on the maintenance among the people of
the feeling of a national unity. The times fixed for their
observance were arranged so as to interfere as little as
possible with the industry of the people. The Passover was
kept just before the harvest commenced, Pentecost at the
conclusion of the corn harvest and before the vintage, the
feast of Tabernacles after all the fruits of the ground had
been gathered in.
(3.) The Day of Atonement, the tenth day of the seventh
month (Lev. 16:1, 34; 23:26-32; Num. 29:7-11). (See
ATONEMENT, DAY
OF.)
Of the post-Exilian festivals reference is made to the
feast of Dedication (John 10:22). This feast was appointed
by Judas Maccabaeus in commemoration of the purification of
the temple after it had been polluted by Antiochus
Epiphanes. The "feast of Purim" (q.v.), Esther
9:24-32, was also instituted after the Exile. (Cf. John
5:1.)
Our Lord's cursing the fig-tree near Bethany (Mark
11:13) has occasioned much perplexity from the
circumstance, as mentioned by the evangelist, that
"the time of figs was not yet." The explanation
of the words, however, lies in the simple fact that the
fruit of the fig-tree appears before the leaves, and hence
that if the tree produced leaves it ought also to have had
fruit. It ought to have had fruit if it had been true to
its "pretensions," in showing its leaves at this
particular season. "This tree, so to speak, vaunted
itself to be in advance of all the other trees, challenged
the passer-by that he should come and refresh himself with
its fruit. Yet when the Lord accepted its challenge and
drew near, it proved to be but as the others, without fruit
as they; for indeed, as the evangelist observes, the time
of figs had not yet arrived. Its fault, if one may use the
word, lay in its pretensions, in its making a show to run
before the rest when it did not so indeed" (Trench,
Miracles).
The fig-tree of Palestine (Ficus carica) produces two and
sometimes three crops of figs in a year, (1) the bikkurah,
or "early-ripe fig" (Micah 7:1; Isa. 28:4; Hos.
9:10, R.V.), which is ripe about the end of June, dropping
off as soon as it is ripe (Nah. 3:12); (2) the kermus, or
"summer fig," then begins to be formed, and is
ripe about August; and (3) the pag (plural "green
figs," Cant. 2:13; Gr. olynthos, Rev. 6:13, "the
untimely fig"), or "winter fig," which
ripens in sheltered spots in spring.
In Jer. 52:21 the rendering of a different word,
hut, meaning a "thread," and designating a
measuring-line of 12 cubits in length for the circumference
of the copper pillars of Solomon's temple.
The precise kind of tree meant by the "green fir
tree" (Hos. 14:8) is uncertain. Some regard it as the
sherbin tree, a cypress resembling the cedar; others, the
Aleppo or maritime pine (Pinus halepensis), which resembles
the Scotch fir; while others think that the
"stone-pine" (Pinus pinea) is probably meant.
Fire for a sacred purpose obtained otherwise than from the
altar was called "strange fire" (Lev. 10:1, 2;
Num. 3:4).
The victims slain for sin offerings were afterwards
consumed by fire outside the camp (Lev. 4:12, 21; 6:30;
16:27; Heb. 13:11).
(2.) For domestic purposes, such as baking, cooking,
warmth, etc. (Jer. 36:22; Mark 14:54; John 18:18). But on
Sabbath no fire for any domestic purpose was to be kindled
(Ex. 35:3; Num. 15:32-36).
(3.) Punishment of death by fire was inflicted on such as
were guilty of certain forms of unchastity and incest (Lev.
20:14; 21:9). The burning of captives in war was not
unknown among the Jews (2 Sam. 12:31; Jer. 29:22). The
bodies of infamous persons who were executed were also
sometimes burned (Josh. 7:25; 2 Kings 23:16).
(4.) In war, fire was used in the destruction of cities, as
Jericho (Josh. 6:24), Ai (8:19), Hazor (11:11), Laish
(Judg. 18:27), etc. The war-chariots of the Canaanites were
burnt (Josh. 11:6, 9, 13). The Israelites burned the images
(2 Kings 10:26; R.V., "pillars") of the house of
Baal. These objects of worship seem to have been of the
nature of obelisks, and were sometimes evidently made of
wood.
Torches were sometimes carried by the soldiers in battle
(Judg. 7:16).
(5.) Figuratively, fire is a symbol of Jehovah's
presence and the instrument of his power (Ex. 14:19; Num.
11:1, 3; Judg. 13:20; 1 Kings 18:38; 2 Kings 1:10, 12;
2:11; Isa. 6:4; Ezek. 1:4; Rev. 1:14, etc.).
God's word is also likened unto fire (Jer. 23:29). It
is referred to as an emblem of severe trials or misfortunes
(Zech. 12:6; Luke 12:49; 1 Cor. 3:13, 15; 1 Pet. 1:7), and
of eternal punishment (Matt. 5:22; Mark 9:44; Rev. 14:10;
21:8).
The influence of the Holy Ghost is likened unto fire (Matt.
3:11). His descent was denoted by the appearance of tongues
as of fire (Acts 2:3).
The "first-born of the poor" signifies the most
miserable of the poor (Isa. 14:30). The "church of the
first-born" signifies the church of the redeemed.
The destruction of the first-born was the last of the ten
plagues inflicted on the Egyptians (Ex. 11:1-8; 12:29, 30).
Menephtah is probably the Pharaoh whose first-born was
slain. His son did not succeed or survive his father, but
died early. The son's tomb has been found at Thebes
unfinished, showing it was needed earlier than was
expected. Some of the records on the tomb are as follows:
"The son whom Menephtah loves; who draws towards him
his father's heart, the singer, the prince of archers,
who governed Egypt on behalf of his father. Dead."
The laws concerning this redemption of the first-born of
man are recorded in Ex. 13:12-15; 22:29; 34:20; Num. 3:45;
8:17; 18:16; Lev. 12:2, 4.
The first-born male of every clean animal was to be given
up to the priest for sacrifice (Deut. 12:6; Ex. 13:12;
34:20; Num. 18:15-17).
But the first-born of unclean animals was either to be
redeemed or sold and the price given to the priest (Lev.
27:11-13, 27). The first-born of an ass, if not redeemed,
was to be put to death (Ex. 13:13; 34:20).
The law required, (1.) That on the morrow after the
Passover Sabbath a sheaf of new corn should be waved by the
priest before the altar (Lev. 23:5, 6, 10, 12; 2:12).
(2.) That at the feast of Pentecost two loaves of leavened
bread, made from the new flour, were to be waved in like
manner (Lev. 23:15, 17; Num. 28:26).
(3.) The feast of Tabernacles was an acknowledgement that
the fruits of the harvest were from the Lord (Ex. 23:16;
34:22).
(4.) Every individual, besides, was required to consecrate
to God a portion of the first-fruits of the land (Ex.
22:29; 23:19; 34:26; Num. 15:20, 21).
(5.) The law enjoined that no fruit was to be gathered from
newly-planted fruit-trees for the first three years, and
that the first-fruits of the fourth year were to be
consecrated to the Lord (Lev. 19:23-25). Jeremiah (2:3)
alludes to the ordinance of "first-fruits," and
hence he must have been acquainted with the books of
Exodus, Leviticus, and Numbers, where the laws regarding it
are recorded.
In Ezek. 4:9 this word is the rendering of the Hebrew
kussemeth (incorrectly rendered "rye" in the
Authorized Version of Ex. 9:32 and Isa. 28:25, but
"spelt" in the Revised Version). The reading
"fitches" here is an error; it should be
"spelt."
In Ex. 2:3, 5, Isa. 19:6, it is the rendering of the Hebrew
suph_, a word which occurs frequently in connection with
_yam; as yam suph, to denote the "Red
Sea" (q.v.) or the sea of weeds (as this word is
rendered, Jonah 2:5). It denotes some kind of sedge or reed
which grows in marshy places.
In the New Testament, besides these it is also used to
denote the sinful element of human nature as opposed to the
"Spirit" (Rom. 6:19; Matt. 16:17). Being "in
the flesh" means being unrenewed (Rom. 7:5; 8:8, 9),
and to live "according to the flesh" is to live
and act sinfully (Rom. 8:4, 5, 7, 12).
This word also denotes the human nature of Christ (John
1:14, "The Word was made flesh." Comp. also 1
Tim. 3:16; Rom. 1:3).
Heb. 'arob, the name given to the insects sent as a
plague on the land of Egypt (Ex. 8:21-31; Ps. 78:45;
105:31). The LXX. render this by a word which means the
"dog-fly," the cynomuia. The Jewish commentators
regarded the Hebrew word here as connected with the word
'arab, which means "mingled;" and they
accordingly supposed the plague to consist of a mixed
multitude of animals, beasts, reptiles, and insects. But
there is no doubt that "the 'arab"
denotes a single definite species. Some interpreters regard
it as the Blatta orientalis, the cockroach, a species of
beetle. These insects "inflict very painful bites with
their jaws; gnaw and destroy clothes, household furniture,
leather, and articles of every kind, and either consume or
render unavailable all eatables."
In the law of Moses there are special regulations as to the
animals to be used for food (Lev. 11; Deut. 14:3-21). The
Jews were also forbidden to use as food anything that had
been consecrated to idols (Ex. 34:15), or animals that had
died of disease or had been torn by wild beasts (Ex. 22:31;
Lev. 22:8). (See also for other restrictions Ex. 23:19;
29:13-22; Lev. 3:4-9; 9:18, 19; 22:8; Deut. 14:21.) But
beyond these restrictions they had a large grant from God
(Deut. 14:26; 32:13, 14).
Food was prepared for use in various ways. The cereals were
sometimes eaten without any preparation (Lev. 23:14; Deut.
23:25; 2 Kings 4:42). Vegetables were cooked by boiling
(Gen. 25:30, 34; 2 Kings 4:38, 39), and thus also other
articles of food were prepared for use (Gen. 27:4; Prov.
23:3; Ezek. 24:10; Luke 24:42; John 21:9). Food was also
prepared by roasting (Ex. 12:8; Lev. 2:14). (See
COOK.)
"The house of the forest of Lebanon (1 Kings 7:2;
10:17; 2 Chr. 9:16) was probably Solomon's armoury, and
was so called because the wood of its many pillars came
from Lebanon, and they had the appearance of a forest.
Heb. horesh, denoting a thicket of trees, underwood,
jungle, bushes, or trees entangled, and therefore affording
a safe hiding-place. place. This word is rendered
"forest" only in 2 Chr. 27:4. It is also rendered
"wood", the "wood" in the
"wilderness of Ziph," in which david concealed
himself (1 Sam. 23:15), which lay south-east of Hebron. In
Isa. 17:19 this word is in Authorized Version rendered
incorrectly "bough."
Heb. pardes, meaning an enclosed garden or plantation.
Asaph is (Neh. 2:8) called the "keeper of the
king's forest." The same Hebrew word is used Eccl.
2:5, where it is rendered in the plural
"orchards" (R.V., "parks"), and Cant.
4: 13, rendered "orchard" (R.V. marg., "a
paradise").
"The forest of the vintage" (Zech. 11:2,
"inaccessible forest," or R.V. "strong
forest") is probably a figurative allusion to
Jerusalem, or the verse may simply point to the devastation
of the region referred to.
The forest is an image of unfruitfulness as contrasted with
a cultivated field (Isa. 29:17; 32:15; Jer. 26:18; Hos.
2:12). Isaiah (10:19, 33, 34) likens the Assyrian host
under Sennacherib (q.v.) to the trees of some huge forest,
to be suddenly cut down by an unseen stroke.
But this word is more frequently used in a symbolical than
in its ordinary sense. It frequently means a forsaking of
God or a following after idols (Isa. 1:2; Jer. 2:20; Ezek.
16; Hos. 1:2; 2:1-5; Jer. 3:8,9).
These fountains, bright sparkling "eyes" of the
desert, are remarkable for their abundance and their
beauty, especially on the west of Jordan. All the perennial
rivers and streams of the country are supplied from
fountains, and depend comparatively little on surface
water. "Palestine is a country of mountains and hills,
and it abounds in fountains of water. The murmur of these
waters is heard in every dell, and the luxuriant foliage
which surrounds them is seen in every plain." Besides
its rain-water, its cisterns and fountains, Jerusalem had
also an abundant supply of water in the magnificent
reservoir called "Solomon's Pools" (q.v.), at
the head of the Urtas valley, whence it was conveyed to the
city by subterrean channels some 10 miles in length. These
have all been long ago destroyed, so that no water from the
"Pools" now reaches Jerusalem. Only one fountain
has been discovered at Jerusalem, the so-called
"Virgins's Fountains," in the valley of
Kidron; and only one well (Heb. beer), the Bir Eyub, also
in the valley of Kidron, south of the King's Gardens,
which has been dug through the solid rock. The inhabitants
of Jerusalem are now mainly dependent on the winter rains,
which they store in cisterns.
The fountain received its name from the "fantastic
legend" that here the virgin washed the
swaddling-clothes of our Lord.
This spring has the singular characteristic of being
intermittent, flowing from three to five times daily in
winter, twice daily in summer, and only once daily in
autumn. This peculiarity is accounted for by the
supposition that the outlet from the reservoir is by a
passage in the form of a siphon.
The proverbial cunning of the fox is alluded to in Ezek.
13:4, and in Luke 13:32, where our Lord calls Herod
"that fox." In Judg. 15:4, 5, the reference is in
all probability to the jackal. The Hebrew word
shu'al_ through the Persian _schagal becomes our
jackal (Canis aureus), so that the word may bear that
signification here. The reasons for preferring the
rendering "jackal" are (1) that it is more easily
caught than the fox; (2) that the fox is shy and
suspicious, and flies mankind, while the jackal does not;
and (3) that foxes are difficult, jackals comparatively
easy, to treat in the way here described. Jackals hunt in
large numbers, and are still very numerous in Southern
Palestine.
This frankincense, or olibanum, used by the Jews in the
temple services is not to be confounded with the
frankincense of modern commerce, which is an exudation of
the Norway spruce fir, the Pinus abies. It was probably a
resin from the Indian tree known to botanists by the name
of Boswellia serrata or thurifera, which grows to the
height of forty feet.
In the New Testament this word occurs only in Rev. 16:13,
where it is referred to as a symbol of uncleanness. The
only species of frog existing in Palestine is the green
frog (Rana esculenta), the well-known edible frog of the
Continent.
"Hoar frost" (Heb. kephor, so called from its
covering the ground) is mentioned in Ex. 16:14; Job 38:29;
Ps. 147:16.
In Ps. 78:47 the word rendered "frost" (R.V.
marg., "great hail-stones"), hanamal,
occurs only there. It is rendered by Gesenius, the Hebrew
lexicographer, "ant," and so also by others, but
the usual interpretation derived from the ancient versions
may be maintained.
(1.) The fruit of the field, "corn-fruit" (Heb.
dagan); all kinds of grain and pulse.
(2.) The fruit of the vine, "vintage-fruit" (Heb.
tirosh); grapes, whether moist or dried.
(3.) "Orchard-fruits" (Heb. yitshar), as dates,
figs, citrons, etc.
Injunctions concerning offerings and tithes were expressed
by these Hebrew terms alone (Num. 18:12; Deut. 14:23). This
word "fruit" is also used of children or
offspring (Gen. 30:2; Deut. 7:13; Luke 1:42; Ps. 21:10;
132:11); also of the progeny of beasts (Deut. 28:51; Isa.
14:29).
It is used metaphorically in a variety of forms (Ps.
104:13; Prov. 1:31; 11:30; 31:16; Isa. 3:10; 10:12; Matt.
3:8; 21:41; 26:29; Heb. 13:15; Rom. 7:4, 5; 15:28).
The fruits of the Spirit (Gal. 5:22, 23; Eph. 5:9; James
3:17, 18) are those gracious dispositions and habits which
the Spirit produces in those in whom he dwells and works.
The first traces of burning the dead are found in 1 Sam.
31:12. The burning of the body was affixed by the law of
Moses as a penalty to certain crimes (Lev. 20:14; 21:9).
To leave the dead unburied was regarded with horror (1
Kings 13:22; 14:11; 16:4; 21:24, etc.).
In the earliest times of which we have record kinsmen
carried their dead to the grave (Gen. 25:9; 35:29; Judg.
16:31), but in later times this was done by others (Amos
6:16).
Immediately after decease the body was washed, and then
wrapped in a large cloth (Acts 9:37; Matt. 27:59; Mark
15:46). In the case of persons of distinction, aromatics
were laid on the folds of the cloth (John 19:39; comp. John
12:7).
As a rule the burial (q.v.) took place on the very day of
the death (Acts 5:6, 10), and the body was removed to the
grave in an open coffin or on a bier (Luke 7:14). After the
burial a funeral meal was usually given (2 Sam. 3:35; Jer.
16:5, 7; Hos. 9:4).
(4.) Heb. alil, a crucible; only used in Ps. 12:6.
(5.) Heb. tannur, oven for baking bread (Gen. 15:17; Isa.
31:9; Neh. 3:11). It was a large pot, narrowing towards the
top. When it was heated by a fire made within, the dough
was spread over the heated surface, and thus was baked.
"A smoking furnace and a burning lamp" (Gen.
15:17), the symbol of the presence of the Almighty, passed
between the divided pieces of Abraham's sacrifice in
ratification of the covenant God made with him.
(6.) Gr. kamnos, a furnace, kiln, or oven (Matt. 13:42, 50;
Rev. 1:15; 9:2).