(4.) The glorious moral attributes, the infinite
perfections of God (Isa. 40:5; Acts 7:2; Rom. 1:23; 9:23;
Eph. 1:12). Jesus is the "brightness of the
Father's glory" (Heb. 1:3; John 1:14; 2:11).
(5.) The bliss of heaven (Rom. 2:7, 10; 5:2; 8:18; Heb.
2:10; 1 Pet. 5:1, 10).
(6.) The phrase "Give glory to God" (Josh. 7:19;
Jer. 13:16) is a Hebrew idiom meaning, "Confess your
sins." The words of the Jews to the blind man,
"Give God the praise" (John 9:24), are an
adjuration to confess. They are equivalent to,
"Confess that you are an impostor," "Give
God the glory by speaking the truth;" for they denied
that a miracle had been wrought.
In 1 Sam. 13:21, a different Hebrew word is used,
dorban, meaning something pointed. The expression (Acts
9:5, omitted in the R.V.), "It is hard for thee to
kick against the pricks", i.e., against the goad, was
proverbial for unavailing resistance to superior power.
(2.) Heb. 'attud, only in plural; rendered
"rams" (Gen. 31:10,12); he-goats (Num. 7:17-88;
Isa. 1:11); goats (Deut. 32:14; Ps. 50:13). They were used
in sacrifice (Ps. 66:15). This word is used metaphorically
for princes or chiefs in Isa. 14:9, and in Zech. 10:3 as
leaders. (Comp. Jer. 50:8.)
(3.) Heb. gedi, properly a kid. Its flesh was a delicacy
among the Hebrews (Gen. 27:9, 14, 17; Judg. 6:19).
(4.) Heb. sa'ir, meaning the "shaggy," a
hairy goat, a he-goat (2 Chr. 29:23); "a goat"
(Lev. 4:24); "satyr" (Isa. 13:21);
"devils" (Lev. 17:7). It is the goat of the
sin-offering (Lev. 9:3, 15; 10:16).
(5.) Heb. tsaphir, a he-goat of the goats (2 Chr. 29:21).
In Dan. 8:5, 8 it is used as a symbol of the Macedonian
empire.
(6.) Heb. tayish, a "striker" or
"butter," rendered "he-goat" (Gen.
30:35; 32:14).
(7.) Heb. 'azazel (q.v.), the "scapegoat"
(Lev. 16:8, 10,26).
(8.) There are two Hebrew words used to denote the
undomesticated goat:, Yael, only in plural mountain
goats (1 Sam. 24:2; Job 39:1; Ps.104:18). It is derived
from a word meaning "to climb." It is the ibex,
which abounded in the mountainous parts of Moab. And
'akko, only in Deut. 14:5, the wild goat.
Goats are mentioned in the New Testament in Matt.
25:32,33; Heb. 9:12,13, 19; 10:4. They represent oppressors
and wicked men (Ezek. 34:17; 39:18; Matt. 25:33).
Several varieties of the goat were familiar to the
Hebrews. They had an important place in their rural economy
on account of the milk they afforded and the excellency of
the flesh of the kid. They formed an important part of
pastoral wealth (Gen. 31:10, 12;32:14; 1 Sam. 25:2).
The arguments generally adduced by theologians in proof of
the being of God are:
(1.) The a priori argument, which is the testimony
afforded by reason.
(2.) The a posteriori argument, by which we proceed
logically from the facts of experience to causes. These
arguments are,
(a) The cosmological, by which it is proved that there
must be a First Cause of all things, for every effect must
have a cause.
(b) The teleological, or the argument from design. We see
everywhere the operations of an intelligent Cause in
nature.
(c) The moral argument, called also the anthropological
argument, based on the moral consciousness and the history
of mankind, which exhibits a moral order and purpose which
can only be explained on the supposition of the existence
of God. Conscience and human history testify that
"verily there is a God that judgeth in the
earth."
The attributes of God are set forth in order by Moses in
Ex. 34:6,7. (see also Deut. 6:4; 10:17; Num. 16:22; Ex.
15:11; 33:19; Isa. 44:6; Hab. 3:6; Ps. 102:26; Job 34:12.)
They are also systematically classified in Rev. 5:12 and
7:12.
God's attributes are spoken of by some as absolute,
i.e., such as belong to his essence as Jehovah, Jah, etc.;
and relative, i.e., such as are ascribed to him with
relation to his creatures. Others distinguish them into
communicable, i.e., those which can be imparted in degree
to his creatures: goodness, holiness, wisdom, etc.; and
incommunicable, which cannot be so imparted: independence,
immutability, immensity, and eternity. They are by some
also divided into natural attributes, eternity, immensity,
etc.; and moral, holiness, goodness, etc.
(2.) The name of the leader of the hostile party described
in Ezek. 38,39, as coming from the "north
country" and assailing the people of Israel to their
own destruction. This prophecy has been regarded as
fulfilled in the conflicts of the Maccabees with Antiochus,
the invasion and overthrow of the Chaldeans, and the
temporary successes and destined overthrow of the Turks.
But "all these interpretations are unsatisfactory and
inadequate. The vision respecting Gog and Magog in the
Apocalypse (Rev. 20:8) is in substance a reannouncement of
this prophecy of Ezekiel. But while Ezekiel contemplates
the great conflict in a more general light as what was
certainly to be connected with the times of the Messiah,
and should come then to its last decisive issues, John, on
the other hand, writing from the commencement of the
Messiah's times, describes there the last struggles and
victories of the cause of Christ. In both cases alike the
vision describes the final workings of the world's evil
and its results in connection with the kingdom of God, only
the starting-point is placed further in advance in the one
case than in the other."
It has been supposed to be the name of a district in the
wild north-east steppes of Central Asia, north of the
Hindu-Kush, now a part of Turkestan, a region about 2,000
miles north-east of Nineveh.
Gold was known from the earliest times (Gen. 2:11). It was
principally used for ornaments (Gen. 24:22). It was very
abundant (1 Chr. 22:14; Nah. 2:9; Dan. 3:1). Many tons of
it were used in connection with the temple (2 Chr. 1:15).
It was found in Arabia, Sheba, and Ophir (1 Kings 9:28;
10:1; Job 28:16), but not in Palestine.
In Dan. 2:38, the Babylonian Empire is spoken of as a
"head of gold" because of its great riches; and
Babylon was called by Isaiah (14:4) the "golden
city" (R.V. marg., "exactress," adopting the
reading marhebah, instead of the usual word
madhebah).
(2.) In 2 Sam. 21:19 there is another giant of the same
name mentioned as slain by Elhanan. The staff of his apear
"was like a weaver's beam." The Authorized
Version interpolates the words "the brother of"
from 1 Chr. 20:5, where this giant is called Lahmi.
(2.) The eldest son of Japheth, and father of Ashkenaz,
Riphath, and Togarmah (Gen. 10:2, 3), whose descendants
formed the principal branch of the population of
South-eastern Europe. He is generally regarded as the
ancestor of the Celtae and the Cimmerii, who in early times
settled to the north of the Black Sea, and gave their name
to the Crimea, the ancient Chersonesus Taurica. Traces of
their presence are found in the names Cimmerian Bosphorus,
Cimmerian Isthmus, etc. In the seventh century B.C. they
were driven out of their original seat by the Scythians,
and overran western Asia Minor, whence they were afterwards
expelled. They subsequently reappear in the times of the
Romans as the Cimbri of the north and west of Europe,
whence they crossed to the British Isles, where their
descendants are still found in the Gaels and Cymry. Thus
the whole Celtic race may be regarded as descended from
Gomer.
There are four historical accounts of the person and work
of Christ: "the first by Matthew, announcing the
Redeemer as the promised King of the kingdom of God; the
second by Mark, declaring him 'a prophet, mighty in
deed and word'; the third by Luke, of whom it might be
said that he represents Christ in the special character of
the Saviour of sinners (Luke 7:36; 15:18); the fourth by
John, who represents Christ as the Son of God, in whom
deity and humanity become one. The ancient Church gave to
Matthew the symbol of the lion, to Mark that of a man, to
Luke that of the ox, and to John that of the eagle: these
were the four faces of the cherubim" (Ezek. 1:10).
Date. The Gospels were all composed during the latter part
of the first century, and there is distinct historical
evidence to show that they were used and accepted as
authentic before the end of the second century.
Mutual relation. "If the extent of all the
coincidences be represented by 100, their proportionate
distribution will be: Matthew, Mark, and Luke, 53; Matthew
and Luke, 21; Matthew and Mark, 20; Mark and Luke, 6.
Looking only at the general result, it may be said that of
the contents of the synoptic Gospels [i.e., the first three
Gospels] about two-fifths are common to the three, and that
the parts peculiar to one or other of them are little more
than one-third of the whole."
Origin. Did the evangelists copy from one another? The
opinion is well founded that the Gospels were published by
the apostles orally before they were committed to writing,
and that each had an independent origin. (See MATTHEW,
GOSPEL.)
(2.) Wild gourds (2 Kings 4:38-40), Heb. pakkuoth, belong
to the family of the cucumber-like plants, some of which
are poisonous. The species here referred to is probably the
colocynth (Cucumis colocynthus). The LXX. render the word
by "wild pumpkin." It abounds in the desert parts
of Syria, Egypt, and Arabia. There is, however, another
species, called the Cucumis prophetarum, from the idea that
it afforded the gourd which "the sons of the
prophets" shred by mistake into their pottage.
(2.) Heb. nasi, raised; exalted. Used to denote the chiefs
of families (Num. 3:24, 30, 32, 35); also of tribes (2:3;
7:2; 3:32). These dignities appear to have been elective,
not hereditary.
(3.) Heb. pakid, an officer or magistrate. It is used of
the delegate of the high priest (2 Chr. 24:11), the Levites
(Neh. 11:22), a military commander (2 Kings 25:19),
Joseph's officers in Egypt (Gen. 41:34).
(4.) Heb. shallit, one who has power, who rules (Gen.
42:6; Ezra 4:20; Eccl. 8:8; Dan. 2:15; 5:29).
(5.) Heb. aluph, literally one put over a thousand, i.e.,
a clan or a subdivision of a tribe. Used of the
"dukes" of Edom (Gen. 36), and of the Jewish
chiefs (Zech. 9:7).
(6.) Heb. moshel, one who rules, holds dominion. Used of
many classes of rulers (Gen. 3:16; 24:2; 45:8; Ps. 105:20);
of the Messiah (Micah 5:2); of God (1 Chr. 29:12; Ps.
103:19).
(7.) Heb. sar, a ruler or chief; a word of very general
use. It is used of the chief baker of Pharaoh (Gen. 40:16);
of the chief butler (40:2, etc. See also Gen. 47:6; Ex.
1:11; Dan. 1:7; Judg. 10:18; 1 Kings 22:26; 20:15; 2 Kings
1:9; 2 Sam. 24:2). It is used also of angels, guardian
angels (Dan. 10:13, 20, 21; 12:1; 10:13; 8:25).
(8.) Pehah, whence pasha, i.e., friend of the king;
adjutant; governor of a province (2 Kings 18:24; Isa. 36:9;
Jer. 51: 57; Ezek. 23:6, 23; Dan. 3:2; Esther 3: 12), or a
perfect (Neh. 3:7; 5:14; Ezra 5:3; Hag. 1:1). This is a
foreign word, Assyrian, which was early adopted into the
Hebrew idiom (1 Kings 10:15).
(9.) The Chaldean word segan is applied to the
governors of the Babylonian satrapies (Dan. 3:2, 27; 6:7);
the prefects over the Magi (2:48). The corresponding Hebrew
word segan is used of provincial rulers (Jer. 51:23,
28, 57); also of chiefs and rulers of the people of
Jerusalem (Ezra 9:2; Neh. 2:16; 4:14, 19; 5:7, 17; 7:5;
12:40).
In the New Testament there are also different Greek words
rendered thus.
(1.) Meaning an ethnarch (2 Cor. 11:32), which was an
office distinct from military command, with considerable
latitude of application.
(2.) The procurator of Judea under the Romans (Matt.
27:2). (Comp. Luke 2:2, where the verb from which the Greek
word so rendered is derived is used.)
(3.) Steward (Gal. 4:2).
(4.) Governor of the feast (John 2:9), who appears here to
have been merely an intimate friend of the bridegroom, and
to have presided at the marriage banquet in his stead.
(5.) A director, i.e., helmsman; Lat. gubernator, (James
3:4).
(2.) But in popular language the expression is used in a
wider sense to denote those exercises in which we engage
for the purpose of obtaining spiritual blessing; as hearing
the gospel, reading the Word, meditation, self-examination,
Christian conversation, etc.
(2.) Heb. deshe', green grass (Gen. 1:11, 12; Isa.
66:14; Deut. 32:2). "The sickly and forced blades of
grass which spring up on the flat plastered roofs of houses
in the East are used as an emblem of speedy destruction,
because they are small and weak, and because, under the
scorching rays of the sun, they soon wither away" (2
Kings 19:26; Ps. 129:6; Isa. 37:27).
The dry stalks of grass were often used as fuel for the
oven (Matt. 6:30; 13:30; Luke 12:28).
In Judg. 6:5; 7:12; Job 39:30; Jer. 46:23, where the
Authorized Version has "grasshopper," the Revised
Version more correctly renders the Hebrew word ('arbeh)
by "locust." This is the case also in Amos 7:1;
Nah. 3:17, where the Hebrew word gob is used; and in
Lev. 11:22; Num. 13:33; Eccl. 12:5; Isa. 40:22, where
hagab is used. In all these instances the proper
rendering is probably "locust" (q.v.).
Moses makes mention of Greece under the name of Javan
(Gen. 10:2-5); and this name does not again occur in the
Old Testament till the time of Joel (3:6). Then the Greeks
and Hebrews first came into contact in the Tyrian
slave-market. Prophetic notice is taken of Greece in Dan.
8:21.
The cities of Greece were the special scenes of the
labours of the apostle Paul.
The word "Grecians" in Acts 11:20 should be
"Greeks," denoting the heathen Greeks of that
city, as rendered in the Revised Version according to the
reading of the best manuscripts ("Hellenes").
The LXX. have rendered asherah in 2 Chr. 15:16 by
"Astarte." The Vulgate has done this also in
Judg. 3:7.
(2.) Heb. 'eshel (Gen. 21:33). In 1 Sam. 22:6 and
31:13 the Authorized Version renders this word by
"tree." In all these passages the Revised Version
renders by "tamarisk tree." It has been
identified with the Tamariscus orientalis, five species of
which are found in Palestine.
(3.) The Heb. word 'elon, uniformly rendered in the
Authorized Version by "plain," properly signifies
a grove or plantation. In the Revised Version it is
rendered, pl., "oaks" (Gen. 13:18; 14:13; 18:1;
12:6; Deut. 11:30; Josh. 19:33). In the earliest times
groves are mentioned in connection with religious worship.
The heathen consecrated groves to particular gods, and for
this reason they were forbidden to the Jews (Jer. 17:3;
Ezek. 20:28).
(2.) Heb. rats, properly a "courier," one whose
office was to run before the king's chariot (2 Sam.
15:1; 1 Kings 1:5). The couriers were also military guards
(1 Sam. 22:17; 2 Kings 10:25). They were probably the same
who under David were called Pelethites (1 Kings 14:27; 2
Sam. 15:1).
(3.) Heb. mishmereth, one who watches (Neh. 4:22), or a
watch-station (7:3; 12:9; Job 7:12).
In the New Testament (Mark 6:27) the Authorized Version
renders the Greek spekulator by
"executioner," earlier English versions by
"hangman," the Revised Version by "soldier
of his guard." The word properly means a
"pikeman" or "halberdier," of whom the
bodyguard of kings and princes was composed. In Matt.
27:65, 66; 28:11, the Authorized Version renders the Greek
kustodia by "watch," and the Revised
Version by "guard," the Roman guard, which
consisted of four soldiers, who were relieved every three
hours (Acts 12:4). The "captain of the guard"
mentioned Acts 28:16 was the commander of the Praetorian
troops, whose duty it was to receive and take charge of all
prisoners from the provinces.
There is another river of the same name (the Chaboras)
which, after a course of about 200 miles, flows into the
Euphrates at Karkesia, the ancient Circesium. This was,
there can be little doubt, the ancient Habor.
(2.) Another Edomite king (1 Chr. 1:50, 51), called also
Hadar (Gen. 36:39; 1 Chr. 1:51).
(3.) One of "the king's seed in Edom." He
fled into Egypt, where he married the sister of
Pharaoh's wife (1 Kings 11:14-22). He became one of
Solomon's adversaries.
Hadad, sharp, (a different name in Hebrew from the
preceding), one of the sons of Ishmael (1 Chr. 1:30).
Called also Hadar (Gen. 25:15).
In Luke 16:23 it is most distinctly associated with the
doom and misery of the lost.
In Acts 2:27-31 Peter quotes the LXX. version of Ps.
16:8-11, plainly for the purpose of proving our Lord's
resurrection from the dead. David was left in the place of
the dead, and his body saw corruption. Not so with Christ.
According to ancient prophecy (Ps. 30:3) he was recalled to
life.
(2.) The fifth son of Joktan, the founder of an Arab tribe
(Gen. 10:27; 1 Chr. 1:21).
(3.) One who was "over the tribute;" i.e.,
"over the levy." He was stoned by the Israelites
after they had revolted from Rehoboam (2 Chr. 10:18).
Called also Adoram (2 Sam. 20:24) and Adoniram (1 Kings
4:6).
Ishmael afterwards established himself in the wilderness
of Paran, where he married an Egyptian (Gen. 21:20,21).
"Hagar" allegorically represents the Jewish
church (Gal. 4:24), in bondage to the ceremonial law; while
"Sarah" represents the Christian church, which is
free.
(2.) Used of Jaziz (1 Chr. 27:31), who was over
David's flocks. "A Hagarite had charge of
David's flocks, and an Ishmaelite of his herds, because
the animals were pastured in districts where these nomadic
people were accustomed to feed their cattle."
(3.) In the reign of Saul a great war was waged between
the trans-Jordanic tribes and the Hagarites (1 Chr. 5), who
were overcome in battle. A great booty was captured by the
two tribes and a half, and they took possession of the land
of the Hagarites.
Subsequently the "Hagarenes," still residing in
the land on the east of Jordan, entered into a conspiracy
against Israel (comp. Ps. 83:6). They are distinguished
from the Ishmaelites.
(2.) A precisely opposite practice, as regards men,
prevailed among the Assyrians. In Assyrian sculptures the
hair always appears long, and combed closely down upon the
head. The beard also was allowed to grow to its full
length.
(3.) Among the Greeks the custom in this respect varied at
different times, as it did also among the Romans. In the
time of the apostle, among the Greeks the men wore short
hair, while that of the women was long (1 Cor. 11:14, 15).
Paul reproves the Corinthians for falling in with a style
of manners which so far confounded the distinction of the
sexes and was hurtful to good morals. (See, however, 1 Tim.
2:9, and 1 Pet. 3:3, as regards women.)
(4.) Among the Hebrews the natural distinction between the
sexes was preserved by the women wearing long hair (Luke
7:38; John 11:2; 1 Cor. 11:6), while the men preserved
theirs as a rule at a moderate length by frequent clipping.
Baldness disqualified any one for the priest's office
(Lev. 21).
Elijah is called a "hairy man" (2 Kings 1:8)
from his flowing locks, or more probably from the shaggy
cloak of hair which he wore. His raiment was of camel's
hair.
Long hair is especially noticed in the description of
Absalom's person (2 Sam. 14:26); but the wearing of
long hair was unusual, and was only practised as an act of
religious observance by Nazarites (Num. 6:5; Judg. 13:5)
and others in token of special mercies (Acts 18:18).
In times of affliction the hair was cut off (Isa. 3:17,
24; 15:2; 22:12; Jer. 7:29; Amos 8:10). Tearing the hair
and letting it go dishevelled were also tokens of grief
(Ezra 9:3). "Cutting off the hair" is a figure of
the entire destruction of a people (Isa. 7:20). The Hebrews
anointed the hair profusely with fragrant ointments (Ruth
3:3; 2 Sam. 14:2; Ps. 23:5; 45:7, etc.), especially in
seasons of rejoicing (Matt. 6:17; Luke 7:46).
There is also another group called "The Great
Hallel," comprehending Psalms 118-136, which was
recited on the first evening at the Passover supper and on
occasions of great joy.